Philosophy

Review and Comparative Study of Nietzsche's and Dilthey's Thinking in Relation to History

Hassan Gheybipour; Ali Karbasizadeh; Mohammad Safian

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 185-202

Abstract

  History, under the influence of Hegel's thoughts in the 19th century, took a high place. In the following, some historians with a positivist way of thinking proposed the idea of scientific ...  Read More History, under the influence of Hegel's thoughts in the 19th century, took a high place. In the following, some historians with a positivist way of thinking proposed the idea of scientific historiography. Based on that, history becomes a definite science and, like natural sciences, it is separated from the researcher's mentalities. The problem starts from here that German historicism, believing in the normative force of history, emphasized the importance that the historian should provide a direction for society and culture by discovering the pure facts and revealing their historical meaning.Based on this idea of history, the social and cultural function of philosophy was challenged. In this chaotic situation that made philosophy face the crisis of identity, Nietzsche's and Dilthey's projects, i.e. the broad and diverse movement of "philosophy of life," became the driving force of the renewal of philosophy in the 19th century.Nietzsche and Dilthey agreed on the issue that comprehensive historiography in its understanding of human beings has created the problem of relativism, which causes "dissolution" and "pessimism" and cannot predict the future of human culture. Therefore, they called for a new philosophy that should reveal the purpose of human culture and support its progress towards reaching its goal. Although they chose a similar path to confirm the cultural authority of philosophy against the results of historical criticism, they arrived at a completely different solution.Nietzsche calls the antidotes against historicism "supra-historical", which includes the art of forgetting history and living in an enclosed and determined horizon; It means having the talent to know when to sense history and when to leave it aside.In his opinion, both of these methods are equally necessary for the health of a person, the health of a nation and culture. Dilthey, unlike Nietzsche, considers history to be an antidote and a cure for the failures of the philosophy of life: If history creates a wound, it must also heal it. 

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Ideology as the Science of Ideas: A Ricouerian Encounter with “Destutt de Tracy and his Epistemological Project for a New Science”

Hossein Mesbahian

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 203-223

Abstract

  This article asks: can there be a scientific concept of ideology? This question—which is also the title of an article by Paul Ricoeur—is framed in such a way as to challenge ...  Read More This article asks: can there be a scientific concept of ideology? This question—which is also the title of an article by Paul Ricoeur—is framed in such a way as to challenge prevailing conceptions of ideology in favor of a phenomenological approach. Employing the popular but difficult idiom of phenomenology—return to things themselves—and deconstructing the extant logic of ideology established and coined by Destutt de Tracy, this paper argues that a scientific conception of ideology becomes possible. In light of such a possibility, this paper further argues that this scientific conception paves the path for stepping beyond the dichotomy of interpretation and change, or theoretical and practical research. At the very least, a scientific concept of ideology will allow for the development of a kind of science—which, despite not claiming any superiority to other sciences (thus contrary to De Tracy’s contention)—will nevertheless reflect fundamental differences from other sciences in subject matter, methodology and logic. After an exegesis of de Tracy’s thought on the sources, methodology and logic of ideology, this paper examines the claim of the superiority of ideology to other sciences and his Baconian project of reconstructing human understanding and nature. It is clear that the epistemological foundations of ideology are not defendable today and face critical questions. Questions such as, if ideology were to examine sources of human consciousness (knowledge, understanding, intellect), why and how could intellect itself and its foundations, which are supposed to carry out such a process, be excluded from the arbitration process? Of what nature are those intellectual foundations and why is there not adequate discussion about them? Why should that particular way of reasoning be immune to its rulings on the material foundations of thought? Perhaps the whole concept of ideology is merely a biological reflection of intellect in the mind of a French philosopher called Destutt de Tracy, and has no more objective validity than that. If the claim of ideology is that reason can grasp the whole of reality, the question that arises is whether reason can have a grasp on itself and its mechanisms, or should such grasp be excluded from the scope of reason’s analysis? The science of ideas seems to have assumed a transcendental position; But it is precisely this assumption and claim that in return violates the methodological foundations of ideology. These questions lead us to the main question of this article, which is, in the words of Paul Ricoeur: “Do we have no choice but to accede to the opposition between science and ideology?” And to say that ideology is not a science? The answer to this question is that there are possibilities in ideology which can be used to postulate the notion of "ideology as a science" and that this concept also faces limitations which resist developing into a science. What is important, however, is to address the tension between science and ideology, for, as Ricoeur puts it, “we have more to lose by not dealing with this tension” (Ricoeur, 1978, p. 57). This paper concludes that if ideology signifies as an analysis of  dominant ideas , it can be merged and united with critical phenomenology (an approach that appeared some two centuries after the concept of ideology) and thereby be employed to dismantle the dichotomy of interpretation and change. In this concluding section, it will be noted that ideology has three main underpinnings: a) its contemporaneity with the philosophical-scientific tradition of knowledge; b) a critique of established ideas; and c) the emergence of relative alternatives. In conjunction with one another, these three create an ideology as science that is different in essence from other sciences; its modus operandi is the simultaneous task of interpretation and change: a quality unique to ideology— and later, critical phenomenology—present in no other science or knowledge.

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Mulla Sadra's Opinion About the Head of Government and His Characteristics; Based on the Book of Origin and Resurrection

Mohammad Mollai Iveli; Ali Asghar Zakavi

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 225-240

Abstract

  Forming a government in order for humans to achieve their individual and social goals is a rational necessity. The necessity of forming a government and, as some philosophers call it, ...  Read More Forming a government in order for humans to achieve their individual and social goals is a rational necessity. The necessity of forming a government and, as some philosophers call it, "Medina" and the existence of the head of the government, has been the focus of Western and Islamic philosophers, and Mulla Sadra, as the founder of "Hekmat Ta'alaye" has also paid great attention to this issue in various works, especially the book "The Origin and Resurrection". But the discussion about the right of sovereignty and the characteristics of the ruler has always been among the challenging topics among philosophers and sages. The purpose of this article is to analyze Mulla Sadra's opinions as the founder of Hikmat Ta'ala, in the context of the head of government and his characteristics. Therefore, the main question is: From Mullah Sadra's point of view, for whom is the right of sovereignty over the Islamic society fixed and what characteristics should it have? The answer to this question has been examined based on his opinions based on the book of origin and resurrection. This study is a type of content analysis research, which is done by referring to the written sources of Hakim Mataleh, relying on the book Mabada wa Maad. By collecting data in line with the goal and the main question of the research, and taking into account some of Mullah Sadra's intellectual foundations, such as the belief in monotheism, the right of divine sovereignty, the rule of possibility, the levels of reason, the rule of unity, the originality and doubt of existence, and the meaning of happiness and true perfection. It turned out that according to Mulla Sadra, first of all, the existence of a head of government is a necessity to run the society and lead people to the true happiness and perfection of mankind, and secondly, since the right to rule belongs to God, only a person has the right to rule over the people who is authorized and be appointed directly or indirectly by the ruler. Such a person is either a prophet of God who, relying on his knowledge, knows the true happiness and the way to achieve it correctly, or an authorized imam appointed by him. He then lists some of the characteristics of the ruler. This study can determine the task of governance and the type of governance in Islamic society and establish a governance model based on the principles of transcendental wisdom. 

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The Moral Function of Art in the Culture Industry Fight

Alireza Aram; Bahare Geravandi

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 1-15

Abstract

  The ideologues of the Enlightenment Dialectical, using the term Culture Industry, have presented it as a comprehensive description of mass and common deception in the capitalist system; ...  Read More The ideologues of the Enlightenment Dialectical, using the term Culture Industry, have presented it as a comprehensive description of mass and common deception in the capitalist system; An all-encompassing industry with an amalgam of imprisonment, incitement and deviation of public opinion in a seemingly rational and free society. The Culture Industry integrates all these intellectual and practical anxieties and disturbances in its commercial glamor, and by refining its product - which is a reflection of the directional, deceptive and antielitist propositions of the capitalism - it captures the mentality of society and popular culture. By following the path of cure through the two channels of art and ethics, a plan is inferred that can raise hopes of curbing the waves of the cultural industry, or safety against its pervasive dominance. Analyzing this path from the perspective of the founders of the Frankfurt School, the present article first describes the ideal relationship between art and ethics with the prospect of a successful exit from the fence of the cultural industry. But, and after a critical consideration of the moral-artistic consequences in question, the path drawn in Adorno's and Horkheimer's long reflections as a way out of the cultural industry seems to have failed in practice and even in an unexpected direction. It is self-defeating or contradictory, because: a) to resort to negative ethics and conceptual art will be disconnected from public culture. B) The fruit of this seclusion is limited to agora movements. C) This safe living world, as an integral part of the cultural industry, is still indebted to capitalist relations. This result, which is far from the demands of these philosophers, is the forced result of the relations governing the modern industrial society, which can bring its enemy to the inevitable trading market. In this process, the supply of cultural products is also recognized as part of the consumable distribution network. Works whose claim is to strengthen those with negative morality and (anti) aesthetic uniqueness are also entered in this market. If the preparation of these elitist products does not require exorbitant material costs and does not fall into the box office trap and culture market with an eye on the return of investment, it is at least prone to be imitated and even promoted by the owners of capital marketing. Because the speed of reproduction is a solidifying element for the consolidation of the culture industry. In this way and as a paradoxical situation, just as the inventor or user of environmentally polluting products promotes the use of bicycles to reduce pollution, the agents of the commodification of culture also offer outstanding products of modern art as an alternative to popular art and culture; to benefit from both products.

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Clarification of the Relation Between Unity and Multiplicity in Logic of Expression According to Deleuze’s Reading of Spinoza

Ashkan Ahadi; Mohammad Taghi Tabatabei

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 17-34

Abstract

  Gilles Deleuze usually articulates his philosophical problems through the reading of other philosophers. Given this matter, he typically emphasizes a concept in a philosopher’s ...  Read More Gilles Deleuze usually articulates his philosophical problems through the reading of other philosophers. Given this matter, he typically emphasizes a concept in a philosopher’s thought which might not seem crucial at the first glance. The concept of Expression, developed by Deleuze based on his reading of Spinoza in Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza, is one of these concepts, which is broad and multifaceted. The present paper investigates this concept considering the relationship between unity and multiplicity. So, it is the logical aspect of the concept of expression which has been discussed here. This article attempts to show how Deleuze brings the “logic of expression” into play to reject the priority of unity over multiplicity and vice versa and establish an immanent relation between them. For this purpose, first, the distinction of three elements of this logic has been described. These elements are: “what expresses itself”, “expression”, and “what is expressed”. Then it is shown how these three elements can only be considered by each other, in such a way that none of them will have priority over the other. To do so, this correlation is explained in three different ways: Firstly, every two elements of this logic can be distinguished only in respect of the third element. Secondly, since "expression" has a genetic role in the constitution of the essence of "what expresses itself", therefore "what is expressed" can only exist in "expression". Thirdly, according to the “rule of convertibility” that Deleuze takes from Spinoza, the object and the essence of the object have a reciprocal relationship, and for this reason, all three elements of the expression are correlated. The next part of the article elucidates the relationship between the concepts of unity and multiplicity by considering this correlation. Since "expression" is the multiplicity aspect of the logic of expression and "what expresses itself" is its unity and both are connected to "what is expressed", Therefore, unity and multiplicity will be mutual concepts. This interdependence of multiplicity and unity defines the concept of “immanence” according to Deleuze. Considering this logic, the last part of the article reconstructs Deleuze's interpretation of Spinoza's concepts of absolute substance and real distinction of attributes in an analytical way, to concretely reveal an example of the critical and transformative consequences of this logic. For this purpose, by assuming the logic of expression and the immanent relation of unity and multiplicity, it is shown that the understanding of the multiplicity of attributes requires the idea of ​​an absolutely infinite substance and that the idea of ​​substance requires the multiplicity of attributes that express its essence. so that in Deleuze's reading of Spinoza, neither attributes can be conceived without absolute substance, nor absolute substance can be conceived without infinite attributes.

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Relativism of Values and De Se Attitudes

Peyman Jabbari; Mohsen Javadi; Muhammad Legenhausen

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 35-56

Abstract

  Metaethical relativism is in the first place a theory about the ontological status of moral properties and the truth and justification of ethical judgments. Since truth-ascriptions ...  Read More Metaethical relativism is in the first place a theory about the ontological status of moral properties and the truth and justification of ethical judgments. Since truth-ascriptions of relative judgments are different from ordinary sentences, relativists should advance a semantic theory about how the content and truth of such sentences are determined. Contextualist take such sentences to be elliptic for a sentence containing a parameter that refers to a reference frame determined by the context of assertion. With the content of different assertions of a judgment varying from one context to other, contextualists are bound to consider the apparently genuine faultless disagreements, which are a main motivation for accepting moral relativism, as mere misunderstandings. Also, they are faced with other problems in pragmatics of moral assertions in cases of retraction and rejection. By refuting contextualism, “New relativists” claim that it is just the truth of moral judgments that is relative, and the content of such judgments does not vary among their different assertions. John MacFarlane makes such a move by adding an index to the circumstances of evaluation of such judgments which is determined by context of assessment, and refers to assessors' preferences. In his de se relativism about values, Andy Egan presents a different theory, which he claims it to be the best if we were inclined to adopt naturalism, internalism, and cognitivism. By accepting David Lewis' theory of de se attitudes, which considers content of sentences to be properties instead of propositions, Egan claims that the value judgments have centered world properties as contents which have no corresponding possible world propositions.  By making value judgments, people self-ascribe such properties. Using Lewis' theory of value, Egan claims that the content of value properties is “being disposed to desire to desire x”. This property does not vary among different assertions of a sentence. Combining this theory with Robert Stalnaker's theory of assertion, Egan claims that he is not faced with the problem of lost disagreement. Like MacFarlane, Egan adds an assessor index to the circumstances of evaluation of relative sentences, but unlike him he claims it to be determined by the context of use. In addition, Egan makes two criticisms against the contextualist account of value judgments, which we have called the naturalist and the internalist problems. Both problems stem from the fact that according to contextualism, an assertion of some content can be evaluative while another assertion of the same content is non-evaluative. Egan claims that his account can avoid such problems. In the present paper, we show that Egan's attempts are unsuccessful. His account is faced with the same criticisms he leveled at contextualism; and if he tries to avoid such objections, his escape routes will open the way for contextualists as well. Also, by accepting Lewis' theory of content, Egan has taken on an additional burden, which is hard to defend.

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Historicity and it's Relation to Fundamental Ontology in Heidegger's Being and Time

Tahere Habibi; Sayyed Hamid Talebzade; Ahmad Rajabi

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 57-72

Abstract

  Heidegger in Being and Time, following Kant, who considered transcendental logic as a condition for the possibility of empirical science, considers historicity as a transcendental condition ...  Read More Heidegger in Being and Time, following Kant, who considered transcendental logic as a condition for the possibility of empirical science, considers historicity as a transcendental condition of historiography. He turns the epistemological and methodological question of the historical sciences into an ontological question; that is, instead of asking “under what circumstances can the objectivity of the historical knowledge be confirmed?” he asks, “what kind of existence Dasein have that allows him to care about himself and the world, and understand the meaning of his past?” “And how is there such a thing as history at all?” In order to understand the importance of historicity in the general outline of the book, we should consider its relation to the main question of the work; “What is the meaning of Being?” Hence, this article pursues two goals; First, it tries to show the place of historicity in the whole work, in such a way that is clear how Heidegger first starts from the pre-theorical understanding of Dasein as “existence”, ang then moves toward the discovery of the main structure of existentials as “concern”; Then he introduces “temporality” as a transcendental structure of concern; And finally, it comes to this that the concrete form of temporality is “historicity”. The second goal of this article is to reinterpret this debate with regard to the question of “the meaning of Being”. In this regard, I try to explain that historicity, as a concrete form of temporality, shows the openness of Dasein as the scope of the emergence of the meaning of Being and beings is a close event, which has its beginning and end, as standing on the possibilities it is thrown to them and it takes from its heritage. From this point of view, Heidegger, following Kant’s tradition, considers meaning- giving as a finite process, but unlike Kant, who considered this finitude in terms of the dependence on sensory intuition of being in the world, and thus as the ontic, he considers it as an ontological. He Knows that it arose from the special way of existence of Dasein. Being and Time finally reaches the point that the meaning-giving process which, as the verb “temporalizing” and “hisoricizing” is expressed in trads of past, present, future, or in the other words, heritage, fate, destiny. So, historical finitude reveals the concrete form of temporal finitude. The terms of heritage, fate and destiny each confirm the finitude od Dasein, and in this way, the finitude of the meaning-giving event. In its powerlessness, Dasein in undertakes its heritage in an authentic way. Dasein cannot be its own foundation, but is thrown to its possibilities. 

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Explaining the Problems of Dividing the First and Second Intellects Based on the Principle of Existence and its Ontological Fruits

ئohammad Daneshnahad; mohammadhasan vakili

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 91-112

Abstract

  The basis of the originality of existence created fundamental changes in philosophy that the essentials of such a theory were not followed even by Mulla Sadra. One of the essentials ...  Read More The basis of the originality of existence created fundamental changes in philosophy that the essentials of such a theory were not followed even by Mulla Sadra. One of the essentials of authenticity of existence is the changes that take place in the principle of division of rationalities into primary and secondary rationalities. The division of rationalities into the first rationality is derived from the basis of originality and sensibility, which by proposing the theory of originality of existence and adherence to its accessories, all sensory, imaginary and intellectual perceptions have truth to the extent of benefiting from existence, and based on the theory of abstraction of general concepts from the external facts general concepts have a counterpart in the world of wisdom, and none of the rationalities can be considered to have only an abstract origin without having a counterpart.The division of intellects into the first and the second rational is one of the famous philosophical divisions that has been accepted in The philosophy of masha and sadra with different interpretations. This research, with the method of library, collection and analysis of information and comparison of opinions, seeks to prove the incorrect division of rationalities and enumerates the ontological results of such forms. On this basis, first the division of intellects on the basis of the principle of essence and the principle of existence is examined, then the incorrect causes of the division of intellects are explained, and finally the ontological results of the forms are divided into the division of the first and second intellects. Among the results of this research is that in the light of existence of having general concepts in the world and abstractions and the basis of the principle of existence, it is not possible to divide the rationals into the first and second rationals; Essential unity has a weak place in carrying, and existential concepts are carried over each other based on the connection that is established between them; The division of affairs into reality and credit is incorrect, and all things are real to the extent that they benefit from existence; The division of affairs into intrinsic and transverse is incorrect because it is based on the originality of nature, while on the basis of the originality of existence and the validity of nature, there is no place for it.

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Comparison of the Narrative of the Sacrifice of Son by Abraham in Ibn ʿArabī's Mysticism and Kierkegaard's Existentialist Attitude

Mohsen Sarebannejad; Mohammad Akvan

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 113-133

Abstract

  Sacrifice of Isaac by the command of God and by the hand of Abraham is a common narrative between Judaism, Christianity and some sects of Islam. In addition to Muslim and Christian ...  Read More Sacrifice of Isaac by the command of God and by the hand of Abraham is a common narrative between Judaism, Christianity and some sects of Islam. In addition to Muslim and Christian sages and theologians such as Ibn ʿArabī', Kierkegaard, Augustine and Aquinas, this narrative has also attracted the attention of philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Kant, Hegel, Emmanuel Levinas and Derrida. Verses 1 to 19 of Chapter 22 of the Torah Genesis are the narration of Jehovah's command to Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. A command that Abraham, together with Isaac and his two slaves, traveled a three-day journey to Mount Moriah to fulfill, and just when Abraham took out the knife to slaughter his son, Jehovah's angel called him from the sky and forbade him to perform the sacrifice. Some church fathers, such as Clement and Tertullian, considered this story to be a prototype of Jesus' ascension to the cross. The explicit mention of the covenants and especially Paul's emphasis on the eternal power of God on the one hand and Abraham's faith in this absolute power that can bring even a slaughtered and dead child back to the arms of the father, and also Abraham's faith and suffering in this test are at the center Kierkegaard's attention and reflection are placed in various works such as Repetition, Either/Or, and especially Fear and Trembling. In the Holy Quran, the clearest reference to this narration is in verses 101 to 113 of Surah "As-Saaffat". This essay focuses on the religious-mystical thoughts of Ibn ʿArabī', a famous Muslim mystic, and Søren Kierkegaard, a Danish philosopher and theologian, who is mentioned as the founder of existentialism, compares Abraham's divine experiment to son sacrifice in Christian and Islamic narratives as the focus of his research. Ibn ʿArabī' in Isaac section of Fusus al-hikam (The bezels of wisdom) and Kierkegaard in the book of Fear and Trembling have attempted to interpret the divine experiment of Abraham. The main question of the research is the foundations and principles influencing the thought of Ibn ʿArabī' and Kierkegaard in the interpretation of the mentioned narrative. The results of the research show that the difference between the views of Ibn ʿArabī' and Kierkegaard is the type of view that each of them have on man and his place in the order of creation. The difference of opinion based on which is Abraham, the knight of faith and a believer in the “strength of absurd” in Kierkegaard's view and rejected in the interpretation of Isaac's face as a sheep according to Ibn ʿArabī'. Using the comparative method and relying on the data collected through library sources, this paper first compares the position of man in the thought system of Ibn ʿArabī' and Kierkegaard and then studies the opinions of both of them about the narrative of Isaac's sacrifice.

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The Relationship Between Logic and Grammar from abū Nasr al-Farabi’s Point Of View

Fatemeh Shahidi

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 135-158

Abstract

  After the translation of logical and philosophical works of Greeks  in To Arabic, in the Islamic society, a serious conflict occurred between logic and Arabic grammar. The grammarians ...  Read More After the translation of logical and philosophical works of Greeks  in To Arabic, in the Islamic society, a serious conflict occurred between logic and Arabic grammar. The grammarians considered logic to be useless and irrelevant to their culture, and the logicians considered language just as a tool to convey the statements in the field of thought, and by the criteria of logic. This controversy is mainly represented within the famous debate between Abū Bishr Mattā ibn Yūnus and Abu Sa`īd Al-Sīrāfī, in which  one (Mattā) emphasizes the instrumentality of Arabic syntax, and denies its functionality in guidance and correctness of thought; while the other (al-Sirāfī) emphasizes the obsoleteness of logic and sufficiency of Arabic syntax to ensure the accuracy of thought. In this conflict, Farabi (as a logician) took a third position, despite logicians such as Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsī, Yaḥyá ibn ʿAdī and Abū Sulaymān Muhammad Sijistānī. In the usual linguistic discussions of the Islamic society, he adopted a new perspective by taking philosophical-linguistic issues relating to pre-Islamic period into account. Afterward he would find different answers to the problems that had arisen. He believed in a kind of “science of language" ("Elm al-Lesān") common among all languages of all societies, which due to this commonality, would be considered equivalent to logic, and perhaps a part of that. Therefore, logic and grammar were considered to have the same component, which is common among all languages. According to Farabi, ideally all special grammars in setting their partial rules, should follow the rules of this component, because in all societies the words of the language should be able to imitate  the meanings and the beings, and these logical rules can guarantee the imitation of relationships between meanings and categories that are derived from their beings in the Universe. Farabi's emphasis on the commonality of this kind of linguistic rules could be an evidence of his agreement on some sort of a universal grammar in which, the rules of utterances construction - specially the rules of construction of derivative words- plays the main role. Here is the evidence of Farabi's attention toward ancient traditions of linguistics, especially the ones influenced by Dionysius Thrax, Markus Terentius Varro and Priscianus Caesariensis. Dionysius Thrax wrote the first concise grammar of the Greek language influenced by Aristotelian thought. Varro  Brings to light two significant distinctions within the rules of language, which had never been considered before: one is the distinction between morphology (rules of word construction) and syntax (rules of phrase construction); and the other is the distinction between morphological changes and derivational changes in the words, as well as the distinction between their features and rules. Also Priscianus is one of the first linguists whom in order to adapt the Latin grammar to the Greek grammar, considered the Aristotelian logic and categorization to be the criteria of the rules of the language structures. The act of taking the rules of the Greek language, as a pattern for the Latin language rules reveals that he considered common general aspects among different  grammars. Farabi's statement on the newfound problem of the relation - or better to say, the opposition - of grammar and logic, which due to the cultural and religious condition specified to the Islamic world, was proposed for the first time in the history of linguistics; he introduces rules equivalent to logic rules, for construction of the words in all languages grammar. These rules are common among all languages, and they guarantee the words imitation of implied meanings. Farabi's understanding of the characteristics of these signified meanings, which themselves were derived from the beings of the external world, was based on a philosophical perspective toward the world and the beings; and he believed that among all different language rules, the rules of derivation have the greatest capacity ​​to signify the beings, in the same way that they are understood in philosophy. Al-Farabi in different parts of his works especially in the book of letters makes extensive use of the rules of three types of word structure, i.e. the words "possessive primitive words", "non-possessive primitive words" and "derivative words": For naming different levels of knowledge (including knowledge consisting of/ knowledge of referable and perceptible like white (abyadh); and an abstract and imperceptible independent knowledge like whiteness (bayādh) in all languages, the structure of words signifying to categories (including both substantial species and genuses, accidental species and genuses) in all languages; and also the characteristics of the word signifying to the most important philosophical concept in All languages ​​(of course, except Arabic language), which exactly imitates the characteristics of this concept in philosophy. Considering these linguistic opinions of Farabi, furthermore the history of linguistics after this era, we could truly consider Farabi beliefs on the unity of modes of being, modes of undrestanding and modes of signification, as well as a belief in an universal grammar prior to the  Modists (the believers in speculative grammar); a Linguistic approach in the late Middle Ages, mostly influenced by Priscianus in the history of thoughts, which continued to the contemporary period.

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The Composition of Matter and Form According to the Peripatetic

Javad Soufi; Alireza Kohansal

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 159-172

Abstract

  It is widely known contrary to the Hikmat-Mota'aliyya, which believes in composition through unification of matter and form, the peripatetic believes in composition through annexation ...  Read More It is widely known contrary to the Hikmat-Mota'aliyya, which believes in composition through unification of matter and form, the peripatetic believes in composition through annexation of the two. The attribution of this opinion to the Peripatetics is so strong that no one doubts that they believe in annexation composition, despite research on the subject demonstrating that it is not so simple and that such an attribution cannot be attributed to the Peripatetic with such conviction and certainty. The goal of this article is to refute the assertation that attributed to the peripatetic.Those who believe in union or annexation composition have provided arguments to prove their position. Seyyed Sadr al-Din Dashtaki, also known as Seyyed Sanad, was the first to consider the combination of matter and form to be a union, and Mulla Sadra agreed with him. They document their opinion on previous philosophers in the same way that those who believe in annexation composition do. Seyyed Sanad, the innovator of the unified composition, also considers his theory to be based on the opinions of Ibn Sina and Bahmanyar and cites evidence from them to prove that matter and form exist outside as a one entity, he used Ibn Sina's statement that matter and form are one according to the entity and multiple according to the meaning. Furthermore, the combination of soul and body, which represent matter and form, is annexed, according to Bahmanyar's statement.While rejecting Sadr al-Din Dashtaki, Fayyaz Lahiji, who some consider to be an Ibn Sina follower, believes that matter and form exist as two distinct entities, and most philosophers believe in annexation combination. The majority of philosophers who mentioned meant peripatetics, because the majority of those at the time were peripatetic. Contemporaries of Fayyaz Lahiji, Mirdamad and his student Seyyed Ahmad Alavi, also consider the combination of matter and form to be annexed, rather than the  union combination in the mind, such as genus and differentia. Hakim Sabzevari, a admirer of Hikmat-Mota'aliayya and an interpreter of Mulla Sadr's works, disagrees with him on this point accepting annexation composition as the opinion of great philosophers, including Ibn Sina. As a result, The issue of composition by way of unification and composition by way of annexation is one of Sadr al-Din Dashtaki's innovations in the ninth century AH and has not been discussed previously. As a result, it was not discussed in the books of Ibn Sina, Farabi, Bahmanyar, and other Peripatetics prior to Dashtaki, and they did not discuss this issue, but during and after Sadr al-Din Dashtaki, many philosophers, mostly Peripatetics like Mirdamad and Fayyaz Lahiji, argued against Dashtaki on this point. If we present this issue to the Peripatetics before Dashtaki, we can find evidence in favor of both unification and annexation, so one of these two cannot be attributed to them, and only through tolerance can the Peripatetics be convinced of the annexation combination. 

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Critical Study of Western Natural Law Theories in the Last Stage of Its Revival in Postmodern Period

Mohammad Hossein Talebi

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 173-191

Abstract

  The third and the last stage of the revival of western natural law thinking in postmodern period started from the last third decade of the 20th century by philosophers' and lawyers' ...  Read More The third and the last stage of the revival of western natural law thinking in postmodern period started from the last third decade of the 20th century by philosophers' and lawyers' attention to human rights. The last western natural law theories have been explained and assessed during two chapters in this article. The first chapter has analyzed non-Thomist thought of natural law in that period. In this direction, Fuller offered the theory of "internal morality of law". There are at least three deficiencies of his theory. The first is that his definition of natural law is eighter a circular one, or couses positive law to be the criterion of identifying natural law, whereas natural lawyers put natural law as the criterion of positive one. The second deficiency is that the theory is just an innovation of words. The third and the last deficiency of Fuler's natural law theory is that the theory does not insist on positive rules to be moral. Dworkin called his theory of law "Constructive Interpretation". According to the theory, law is the best interpretation, which can be understood from interrelated legal data, like the acts of legislator, court jugments, legal basic texts and… . "Integrity" is an important keyword in his theory. He emphasized that legal claimes are interpretational jugments. They interpret a present legal act as a plain political affair. That is why Dworkin believed that history has an important role in his theory, unlike positive approaches to law. Infact, he was a proponent of interpretive theories of law and he always criticized semantic theories. In addition to the implication of his speech, which is the acceptance of relativism in the world of law and ethics, since Dworkin identified (moral) positive law as a perfect criterion of integral actions,  his theory about those human affairs, which have no enacted law, was wrong. The second chapter has assessed Finnis's theory as the newest neo-Thomist conception of natural law. Natural law in his view, is the intellectual judgment to do good actions. According to Finnis, a wise decision is one that is accomplished for the sake of a basic good. In his final view, basic goods are seven: bodily life, knowledge, skilful performance in work and play, friendship, marriage, practical reasonableness and harmony with the widest reaches and ultimate source of reality including meaning and value. He attributed to basic goods five characteristics as follows: self-evidence, being intrinsic, having no relation with each other, being equal with each other and having no inference from the fact. Finnis's theory has variant deficiencies, including that none of these features is an attribute of basic goods. Research method in this article is a synthetic one, which is traditional – intellectual – critical.  

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Schelling's Reading of the Problem of Pantheism Based on the Principle of “Identity”

Ahmad Ebadi; Elham Sadat Karimi Douraki

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 193-211

Abstract

  The Philosophical investigations in to the Essence of Human freedom (1809), known as the Treatise on Freedom, is Schelling's attempt to establish a system of freedom. Schelling's main ...  Read More The Philosophical investigations in to the Essence of Human freedom (1809), known as the Treatise on Freedom, is Schelling's attempt to establish a system of freedom. Schelling's main concern in this treatise is to resolve the confrontation between freedom and necessity, which, in his view, is the focus of philosophy. Schelling's main concern in this treatise is to resolve the confrontation between freedom and necessity, which, in his view, is the focus of philosophy. The principle pursued in the fundamental search for the formation of the system and the solution for the conformity of the system and freedom is " identity", which in the true sense means that in pantheism it becomes possible as the only possible system of reason. By proposing and rejecting possible and deterministic interpretations of pantheism, especially in the system of Spinoza and Leibniz, he not only corrects them, but shows that the leading system of pantheism to determinism is the result of a misunderstood ontological understanding. This study shows how, according to Schelling, misinterpretation of this principle allows the incompatibility of system and freedom in different definitions of pantheism. And how Schelling's interpretation of the need to pay attention to "is" leads to an ontological question of the meaning and truth of being in the thought of German idealism. A critical reading of Schelling's attempt to eliminate possible misinterpretations of identity means prioritizing ontological issues over theological issues such as pantheism and explaining a single basic principle for establishing a system as the jointure of the order of being.In order to answer the relationship between pantheism and freedom, we turn to reflection on different interpretations of Schelling's pantheism, this is done by criticizing and examining the errors in Spinoza's and Leibniz's misinterpretations of pantheism. Then, by discussing "is" and showing Schelling's transition from the usual understanding of the principle of identity, we question the true meaning of identity. Finally, we come to the position of answering this question, how does Schelling, with the correct interpretation of the true meaning of "is" in these statements, look for a foundation for the formation of the system and a solution for the compatibility of the system and freedom? Based on Schelling's new understanding of the principle of identity, the leading of a pantheistic system to determinism does not arise from its pantheistic and theological elements, but is the result of ontological misunderstanding and resulting misunderstandings. The wrong context that has become the root of such misunderstandings is the misunderstanding of the meaning of "is" and the role of the conjunction in the sentence. Therefore, the question of pantheism, as a question of the system, leads to the question of "is" and this means changing and transforming the theological question into an ontological question and planning the ontological foundations of the freedom system. Heidegger uses this material to show that the determining element in the question of pantheism is the ontological element, and according to this meaning of the principle of identity, the question of the possibility of a system of freedom is related to the adequate understanding of existence and its fundamental determination, and the question about pantheism is considered He attributes the question about the system to the question of "is" and the way of connecting the jointure of beings.

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Analysis and Investigation of the Constitution of the Alter Ego in Husserl's Phenomenology

Mohamadmehdi Moghadas; Masood Seif

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 213-233

Abstract

    This article proposes of analyzing and investigating Husserl's approach to other’s constitutions, as alter ego. What emerges from Husserl's statement in the fifth meditation ...  Read More   This article proposes of analyzing and investigating Husserl's approach to other’s constitutions, as alter ego. What emerges from Husserl's statement in the fifth meditation of Cartesian meditations is the other’s constitution as a commencement for the foundation of a world in which objectivity is available to all. Husserl calls this world intersubjective. Husserl's account of this constitution includes two basic steps: In the first step, the second reduction implements, by which all intentions, motivations, meanings, etc., aimed at others other than me, are neglected. Then, by expressing the character of the other’s perception as an indirect presence, the meaning of the other is transferred from my body to the other’s body, through an assimilative apperception and by a meaning transfer in the pairing process. At least three serious criticisms can make of this description: (1) The second epoché removes all the meanings directed at the other from the ego. Therefore, any reference to the other that is supposed to acquire its meaning from the ego excludes. In the transcendental sphere, the second epoché takes place by abstracting from everything gives to me as something other than myself; therefore, what remains after the execution of this epoché is only "I." In the second epoché, everything that concerns explicitly I leaves me in what Husserl calls "the special sphere of ownness." This reduction includes the decision only to consider what belongs to me; therefore, to find how "I" gives meaning to the subjects who are bodies as perceptual objects belonging to this reduced sphere of "ownness" and also to discover those capacities that transcended as subjects, this reduction implements. (2) Husserl's description of the body leaves out many aspects of it, And even at the starting point, it does not consider the perceptual difference between the perception of my body and the body of others. He emphasizes the claim that a person's own body is uniquely separated from other animal and human bodies. A person may be supposed to experience this body as an organism when he attributes to its feelings, perceptions, and meaningful actions. Husserl's description of a person's experience of his own body seems to be a particularly limited experience, because Husserl fails to explain the vast part of physical experiences that are known as experiences beyond one's control. Such descriptions of the body seem to be more suitable for mechanical beings that rely on the governance and control of the body.(3) Husserl's statement to distinguish between organism and pseudo-organism is unclear, obscure, and unsatisfactory. Expressing ambiguous terms such as variable but harmonious behavior, as well as not providing a criterion to recognize the harmonious behavior of an organism, are among the things that make Husserl's description difficult. First, in this type of reasoning, it is usually not clear how much improvisation - that is, how many observers apart from the revealed other - is needed to ensure a sufficient number of cases of harmonious behavior. Second, it is also unclear what one should do when faced with another person without having the opportunity to observe their behavior several times. That is, it is unclear to what extent single behaviors or limited behaviors can demonstrate the criterion of behavior harmony.As a conclusion, regarding (1), (2) and (3), despite Husserl's remarkable insights, suggest that the constitution of alter ego appears to have problems that are far from being resolved.

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Aura and Differential Singularity (Towards a Materialist Aesthetics)

Sajad Mombeini

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 235-250

Abstract

  Aesthetic concepts explaining with scientific functions, can be an inspiring idea to lead to a new and special form of aesthetics. A form of aesthetics that as its most important work, ...  Read More Aesthetic concepts explaining with scientific functions, can be an inspiring idea to lead to a new and special form of aesthetics. A form of aesthetics that as its most important work, produces relations between the aesthetic dimension as the material form of the artwork, and material functions in natural science. Establishing such relationships, may first and foremost seem like an idealistic simulation; An effort that is supposed to reduce the latter to an allegory of the first system by finding similarities between two incongruous scientific and aesthetic systems. However, it should be noted that such discussions are not aimed at producing allegorical relationships between scientific and aesthetic systems, and they have no relation with the subsequent reductionism, but by maintaining the independence between these two systems from each other, they try to move in the boundaries, regions and intersection blocks between them, and rooting the modern aesthetic concepts in the scientific systems, or by discovering and even "inventing" these intersection blocks and establishing material relations, try to explain aesthetic concepts by scientific systems. Therefore, the aesthetic concepts located in the intersection block will no longer be an allegory of scientific functions, but they are nothing except a slice of these functions but with a different formulation. Because of their adherence to scientific procedures in producing material relations between the material form of the artwork and the material functions of natural science, such discussions can be considered as a form of materialist aesthetics. As a methodological proposal, materialistic aesthetics can start its work by discovering the trace of a scientific system in an aesthetic system, or in other words, by reconstructing that intersection block that is achieved by intersecting two sets. In this regard, the discovery and reconstruction of the relationship between the Frankfurt School’s critical aesthetics and Leibniz's mathematics can be an outstanding and inspiring example.This research has tried to root Benjamin's concept of Aura in Leibniz's differential theory and Deleuze's special understanding of singularity, and explain Aura based on it. Due to his influence on Leibniz, Deleuze offers a special understanding of mathematical singularity, which can be considered exactly equivalent to extreme point in the general calculus of curves. By intersecting the concept of Aura with differential theory, then discovering conceptual equivalences, identifying nodes, and producing a junction block, it was shown that Aura can be considered as a singularity on the aesthetic space-time curves. Then, based on this experimental method, an attempt was made to formulate the initial and proposed design of a materialist aesthetic as a secondary achievement of the research. Based on this plan, the main idea of the proposed materialistic aesthetics is to intersect the aesthetic system with the scientific systems to produce intersection blocks and areas; in such a way that the aesthetic concepts established in these intersecting blocks can be reconstructed as scientific-material functions. To understand this issue, help was taken from the theory of sets in mathematics.

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The Possibility of Socrates' Turn in Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life

Iraj Azarfaza; Sahram Pazouki

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 1-22

Abstract

  At the end of his Socrates and Aristophanes, Leo Strauss indicates that Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is "the clearest and the most thoughtful" exposition ...  Read More At the end of his Socrates and Aristophanes, Leo Strauss indicates that Muhammad b. Zakaryya al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is "the clearest and the most thoughtful" exposition of the possibility of Socrates' conversion from his youthful contempt for the political or moral things, for the human things or human being, to his mature concern with them. In this paper I will attempt to explain this strange claim through close reading of al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life. al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life is the clearest exposition of this possibility because it reveals Socrates' irony as "taqiyya": "Socrates' turn" requires the dissimulation between theoretical way of life and political way of life. What highlights al-Razi's The Philosophic Way of Life as "the most thoughtful" exposition of this possibility is al-Razi's attempt to add a supplement to Socrates' "taqiyya" which is rational legislation in order to overcome the theological-political basis of the revealed religion. This is the task Athenian Strange in Plato's Laws undertakes. Accordingly, al-Razi opens a new horizon Platonic political philosophy in his era to face with the theological political challenge against philosophy from revealed religion in which after mutatis mutandis his successors (Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes) try to defend philosophy and the philosophic way of life.

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The Relation of Action and Narration in Heidegger

seyede Akram Barakati; Yousof Shaghool; mohammadJavad Safian

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 23-44

Abstract

  The concept of action in Heidegger is related to understanding and projection. What Dasein projects is something like the plot in narration. Although narration is not a word of Heidegger, ...  Read More The concept of action in Heidegger is related to understanding and projection. What Dasein projects is something like the plot in narration. Although narration is not a word of Heidegger, some commentators have a narrativistic interpretation based on historicallity and temporality of Dasein. In this writing we focus on a different interpretation based on fundamental narrativity of Dasein and its relation to action. Our basic thesis is that there is a mutual dependence and hermeneutical circle between actuality and narrativity of Dasein; They are both equal to understanding and projection, so coexist in Dasein' s existential structure. The aim of our discussion is to show that how our actions can be influenced by the way of our narration and interpretation of our life and self-understanding. The analysis of this influence has a basic role in our understanding of the way different narrations such as stories, films, criticisms and…, could affect our behavior and our self-understanding. We find that the understanding of our situation and possibilities can form the kind of our action; Every action as understanding, can open a vast area of possibilities which nonetheless stay hidden. This circle continues perpetually and extends our world.

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Analyzing of Wittgenstein's critique of Augustine's the picture theory of Language

Mohsen Bohlooli Faskhoodi

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 45-65

Abstract

  Wittgenstein begins the important work of his later period of thought, Philosophical Investigations, by critiquing Augustine's view of language. He goes on to show that Augustine's ...  Read More Wittgenstein begins the important work of his later period of thought, Philosophical Investigations, by critiquing Augustine's view of language. He goes on to show that Augustine's theory is based on a limited understanding and, in his words, an element of language that has limited it to the realm of communication and imagery. He also acknowledges Augustine's remarks as a way of ostensive teaching for language learning and has criticized this view. In this study, inferential qualitative method and using one of Augustine's completely specialized and philosophical works on the category of language and its relation to teaching, Teacher dialogue, has been shown that Wittgenstein's critiques of the picture theory of language, the criterion of meaning of language, and the theory of ostensive teaching and definition are, though not entirely, largely based on a limited understanding of Augustine's linguistic positions. Thus, the findings of the study suggest that Wittgenstein's criticism of Augustine's view of the narrative of his work was limited to the Confession book and since this autobiographical work is written more for the general audience and Augustine's aim was not to pose complicated and complex language issues and philosophize about them, Wittgenstein's understanding of the geography of Augustine's thought is strongly in doubt.

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Freedom as Ground of Cause and Reason in Heidegger's "Metaphysics of Dasein

Bahman Pazouki

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 67-85

Abstract

  This article elaborates Heidegger's statement that "freedom is the ground of ground". The notion of freedom is a key concept in a period of Heidegger's thought that he himself has called ...  Read More This article elaborates Heidegger's statement that "freedom is the ground of ground". The notion of freedom is a key concept in a period of Heidegger's thought that he himself has called it "metaphysics of Dasein". Freedom for him is not primarily a political discussion, nor a question of causality, but an ontological principle, an answer to the question of how the world can be opened to Dasein, and why things become questionable for man and on which ground is based his search for finding reasons, proofs and demonstrations. The freedom is "the ground" of our thinking by means of reasons. Heidegger's way of description how to achieve this foundation begins with Dasein's prior understanding of Being (Sein), which is the condition of possibility to be related to other beings. But the possibility of understanding of Being (Sein) itself depends on the transcendence of all beings. In transcending, Dasein gets beyond beings and moves towards their totality, which is the world. The fundamental characteristic of the world is "for the sake of" (Umwillen). There is an intrinsic interrelationship between "for the sake of", which is the primary attribute of the world and being-in-the-world and the freedom of Dasein.

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Psychological hermeneutic of interpretation of Mulla Sadra's thoughts regarding the sleep issue and examining its philosophic foundations

reyhaneh shayesteh; Mohammad Kathem Elmi Sola; Seyed Morteza Hosseini Shahroodi

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 87-105

Abstract

  Dream has always been an attractive issue for the people in various erras and psychologists have investigated it a lot in the past. However, most of the issues relating to dreams such ...  Read More Dream has always been an attractive issue for the people in various erras and psychologists have investigated it a lot in the past. However, most of the issues relating to dreams such as its nature and the reality of prophetic dreams are still ambiguous. Mulla Sadra as a philosopher and also as a psychologist has relatively considered it in his scientific works. This study, after reviewing the litrature and extracting the philosophic foundations of sleep and its psychological issues, has shown that given the Mulla Sadra's thoughts including principality of existence, gradation of existence, substantial motion, bodily origination, spiritual subsistence and consequently two-dimensionality of human as well as Mulla Sadra's belief in human authority, an appropriate structure is created for difining dream, types of dreams and source of dreams. It should be noted that though a number of Mulla Sadra's opinions regarding material dimension of human and considering one of the dimensions of human relatively corresponds to psychology, one can extract exact ideas and opinions regarding dreams and particularly prophetic dreams from the perspective of Mulla Sadra due to lack of existing immateriality in contemporary psychology.

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Four serious Challenges to Ethical Arguments

masoud sadeghi

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 107-123

Abstract

  Moral arguments, especially in the form of concise formulation based on the tradition of analytical philosophers, have become very popular since the twentieth century. The main focus ...  Read More Moral arguments, especially in the form of concise formulation based on the tradition of analytical philosophers, have become very popular since the twentieth century. The main focus of this article is on examining the practical challenges to the realization of an effective ethical argument. Benjamin De Mesel is one of the few who has independently analyzed the issue, believing that a rational and perfected moral argument is not a reasonably valid argument, but must have overcome some practical obstacles or challenges. On this basis, the main question in this paper is, in the light of the De Mesel view, what are these challenges and to what extent are they appropriate and valid. The denial of moral determinants, disregard for one's moral attitudes, lack of depth, and neglect of the individual dimensions of ethical issues are the subject of these four challenges. The findings of the article suggest that, first of all, De Mesel is not very successful in explaining and proving all of these challenging cases, and in successful cases, some of them require better reasoning or more explanation.

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A Philosophical Examination of the Arguments against Criminalization of Mere Thought

Hamidreza Mahboobi Arani

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 125-144

Abstract

  In the criminal jurisprudence, It­ is kind of an established and generally accepted maxim that we must never punish anyone for his mere thought (or thoughts) including his feelings, ...  Read More In the criminal jurisprudence, It­ is kind of an established and generally accepted maxim that we must never punish anyone for his mere thought (or thoughts) including his feelings, desires, fantasies, wishes, beliefs, and unexecuted intentions. Generally It seems that there are more or less convincing reasons that we must avoid punishing mere thought due to its unacceptable and undesirable consequences for both the individual and the society. In this paper, however, I will investigate into some discussions about the justification related to the maxim that any criminalization of mere thought is intrinsically (i.e., consequentially-independent) morally unjust and hence is culpably wrong. My investigation is here mostly confined to one kind of mere thought, that is, unexecuted intentions, leaving some important kinds such as fundamentalist or racist beliefs untouched. I will show that unexecuted intentions can be regarded as more or less harmful, culpably wrong, in section 3, and provable, in section 4, and hence we should find more uncontroversial grounds to secure our more or less common and shared intuition about the respected maxim that punishing mere thought seems to be altogether unacceptable. The paper doesn’t claim that provide convincing arguments for the criminalization of mere thought. Rather its modest claim is that some of the established arguments against the criminalization of mere thought need to be reconsidered.

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Habermas and the Other of Occidental Rationality: The Dichotomous Logic of Exclusive Inclusion

Hossein Mesbahian

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 145-165

Abstract

  This paper seeks to demonstrate how Habermas’ idea of the universality of modernity is driven by the unsubstantiated assumption that takes this notion to be founded on occidental ...  Read More This paper seeks to demonstrate how Habermas’ idea of the universality of modernity is driven by the unsubstantiated assumption that takes this notion to be founded on occidental rationality. In carrying out this task, I first reveal the inherent contradiction of a concept of rationality which seeks to establish itself as the basis of modernity, while at the same time declaring legitimate recognition of its other. Briefly stated, excluding non-Western occidental from the foundation of modernity belies the fundamental requirement of universality, namely the inclusion of the other. This encapsulates what I shall refer to as “The Dichotomous Logic of Exclusive Inclusion” which has engendered philosophical and historical criticisms in both non-Western and Western thought. In the second section of this paper, I shall argue that it is necessary for the “non-Western Other” to push itself away from the margins and to the forefront of the discussion of universality, in order to be recognized as fundamental to the development of a genuine notion of universality that is guided by the contribution of all cultures. 

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Participation in‌The philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas

Mohammad Mollai Iveli; mohsen fahim; mojtaba Jafari Ashqavandi

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 167-187

Abstract

  The concept of participation is, one of the key concepts that plays a central role in Thomas's metaphysics, based on which it communicates between creator and creature. It has a Record ...  Read More The concept of participation is, one of the key concepts that plays a central role in Thomas's metaphysics, based on which it communicates between creator and creature. It has a Record in the philosophy of Plato and Boethius, And in Thomas's terms, when anything receives in a particular manner that which belongs to another in a total manner. It is said to participate it. Since his metaphysics is based on special attention to "existence", and existence is also attributed to both the Creator and the Creator, and the creatures have existence, therefore, the type of relationship between the creator and the creature should be studied and it appears that each one shares the same in existence. Also, what role does it play in the relationship between existence and Essence? This paper intends, in the analytical and research methodology, to study the problem of participation in Thomas Aquinas philosophy by studying the his works and the scholars to determine that what is the purpose of participation, types of participation and the uses of the concept of participation in Thomas's philosophy. He recognizes three types of participation, of which only one can be attributed to God and beings. He justifies the relation between of creator and creature, the relation of Essence and existence and multiplicative relation with the unit by the participation theory.

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The Fate of the Incomplete Spirits from Farabi's Perspective

abbas ali mansouri; zahra kahrizi

Volume 17, Issue 2 , March 2020, , Pages 189-210

Abstract

  Farabi is the only philosopher in the Muslim world whose views and opinions on the resurrection are controversial and different and there are numerous reports of his views on On this ...  Read More Farabi is the only philosopher in the Muslim world whose views and opinions on the resurrection are controversial and different and there are numerous reports of his views on On this subject as far as Some believe that he does not believe in the resurrection of mankind. But our research in this article shows that Farabi does not deny the principle of resurrection ، Rather, he denies the resurrection of the Incomplete Spirits (children, insane peoples and idiots) .The purpose of this article is to examine Farabi's perspective on the fate of the Incomplete Spirits (children, insane peoples and idiots) Discussion on the Fate of the Incomplete Spirits is usually examined from the standpoint of theology and its relation to the two attributes of justice and divine wisdom. But Farabi deals with this The problem purely from a philosophical perspective And even he Does not discuss about the verses and traditions that are seemingly opposite views. Farabi, according to his anthropological principles and specific look at the quality of the Resurrection, to conclude that incomplete Spirits, like other animals, are annihilated after death. In this article we examined the views of Farabi and his Evidence and arguments and his Anthropological Foundations.

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