Philosophy

A Study of Ṭabāṭabāʼī’s Criticisms of Mūllā Ṣadrā’s View on “Limit Definition of an Object by Differentia”

Mohammad Hosseinzadeh

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 73-90

Abstract

  One of Mūllā Ṣadrā’s logical innovations based on the theory of the primacy of existence is that “the definition of an object is unique to its recent differentia”. ...  Read More One of Mūllā Ṣadrā’s logical innovations based on the theory of the primacy of existence is that “the definition of an object is unique to its recent differentia”. Mūllā Ṣadrā believes that in order to achieve true unity in composite quiddity, it is necessary to gather all the previous genuses and differentias in existence or in the same recent Form and differentia; in other words, in the recent Form and differentia, they are merged and depreciated. One of the consequences of such an attitude towards the recent Form and differentia - as the provider of the true unity of the composite quiddity - is that the previous materials and genuses are integrated in a simple way in the recent chapter, but each one, in a detailed way (that is, with actualities multiple) are not the constituents of the compound object and are considered outside of its truth. The inevitable result of the above point is that the inclusion of previous genuses and differentias in the definition of quiddity is not as an intrinsic component of that, but as equipment or branches of quiddity. Ṭabāṭabāʼī, as one of the most important commentators on Mūllā Ṣadrā’s view, did not accept this view and proposed three objections to it: 1) it is not appropriate to be content with the differentia alone; while the “definition” must be detailed 2) the exclusion of previous genuses and differentias from the truth of the object requires a revolution in essence 3) The exclusion of the genuses and differentias from the truth of the object is in conflict with “dress after dress” in the substantial motion. This article, after a brief reference to Mūllā Ṣadrā’s view on the uniqueness of the definition of an object through its recent differentia, presents Ṭabāṭabāʼī’s threefold criticisms with a critical attitude. Examination of these three criticisms led to the conclusion that none of Ṭabāṭabāʼī’s criticisms is correct and that Mūllā Ṣadrā’s intention is to exclude the genuses and differentias present in the detailed order, not the genuses and differentias mentioned in the brief and simple order of the recent differentia. Also, during the study and response to Ṭabāṭabāʼī’s criticisms, some of the hidden dimensions of Mūllā Ṣadrā’s view, such as the affirmative actuality of the genuses and the previous differentias.

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Critique of Suhrawardi's Theory of God's Activity Based on the System of Rationalities in His Philosophy

Laleh Haghighat

Volume 19, Issue 2 , January 2022, , Pages 77-92

Abstract

  Suhrawardi believes that God is the agent of "satisfaction" (bel-Rez); According to this view, divine knowledge is the source of all beings in terms of the general system in the whole ...  Read More Suhrawardi believes that God is the agent of "satisfaction" (bel-Rez); According to this view, divine knowledge is the source of all beings in terms of the general system in the whole world, and the disabled person never has a separate identity from the identity of his science, and this dependence is the same as the relation to the cause. This article seeks to explain the role of the system of Suhrawardi concepts - that is, the rational divisions of the first and second - and "how to carry mental concepts on real matters" in a descriptive-analytical way in explaining Noor Al-Anwar's activity and then his philosophical view on Criticize the activity according to the principle of his thinking. The main question of the present study is whether Suhrawardi's view on the activity of Noor Al-Anwar is compatible with his statements about the system of intellects and its proposed rules or not? According to the results of this article, the lack of separation of secondary logical and philosophical concepts and intellects in Suhrawardi's philosophy and the criteria it provides for the validity of concepts and how they are carried over to real matters, seriously undermines the explanation of "divine knowledge". Therefore, Suhrawardi's view of activity in the pleasure of God can not have a convincing and correct explanation according to his philosophical system.

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The Wisdom of Industry; A Study of Hakim Kashfi's Reflections In the Philosophy of Industry and Technology

Masoud Sadeghi

Volume 20, Issue 1 , July 2022, , Pages 77-94

Abstract

  Philosophy of industry is one of the important dimensions in philosophical discussions and the nodes of economic sciences with theological and philosophical discussions. Hakim Kashfi ...  Read More Philosophy of industry is one of the important dimensions in philosophical discussions and the nodes of economic sciences with theological and philosophical discussions. Hakim Kashfi is also one of the philosophers whose reflection on his works can lead to the explanation of a philosophy, or better to say, the wisdom of the new industry. His definition of industry encompasses all type of creativity and, therefore, considers God the supreme manufacturer and the whole universe his factory. Kashfi's picture of the world and the role of industry in it is based on the metaphor of guest house. He sees the world as a guest home owned by God. Therefore, there must be some people who, through their work and service, give guests the opportunity to enter the realm of divine love. The meaning of work and industry / The ideal manufacturer from the perspective of Kashfi is the main question of the present article, the answer to which leads to the explanation of the theological aspects of industry and industry theory as theology. In this regard, working as a substitute for God, giving to oneself, and expecting the income from God are the three wise ways to discover a monotheistic industry and craftsman. The findings of the article indicate that the ethical view of Kashfi has much in common with some of the concerns of philosophers critical of capitalism; But he goes beyond them and looks at industry as a kind of practical theology.

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The Classification of Intelligibles According to Avicenna

javad soufi; Mahdi Azimi

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 79-102

Abstract

  After the classification of intelligibles into first intelligibles, secondary philosophical intelligibles and secondary logical intelligibles, was presented by Mirdamad and confirmed ...  Read More After the classification of intelligibles into first intelligibles, secondary philosophical intelligibles and secondary logical intelligibles, was presented by Mirdamad and confirmed and consolidated by Mulla Sadra, the final point of view in the classification of intelligibles has been considered until today. However, there are differences in the views of those regarding the philosophers who lived before Mirdamad, such as Avicenna. Some hold that Avicenna believes in the threefold classification of intelligibles in such a way that the secondary intelligibles is equal to the logical secondary intelligibles but although he knew the philosophical second intelligibles, he did not put an independent term for them. On the other hand, another point of view says that Avicenna believes in a dual division, and in his opinion, the first intelligibles are not only first intelligibles that known as substantive concepts, but also considered philosophical concepts  that known as secondary philosophical intelligibles in addition to substantive concepts, and in his opinion, the secondary intelligibles are the same logical secondary intelligibles. According to this research, avicenna classified intelligibles into two categories, first and secondary, in a primary division, not the triple classification that some have thought and not the dual division that is assumed in the second view, but in the way that he classified intelligibles into two categories, first and second, in a primary classification Then, some secondary intelligibles are discussed in logic from the perspective of what associate to them  that is achieving the our logical goal, otherwise according to him The proof and how they exist are discussed in philosophy. They are therefore essentially secondary philosophical intelligibles (to use well-known phrase) and accidently logical secondary inelligibles. As a result, according to Avicenna not only the secondary inelligibles not equivalent to the secondary logical intelligibles but  includes them and philosophical concepts

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The Theory of the Reverse Process and its Application in Explaining the Way of Observing and Knowing About Occult Matters by Ibn Sina and Sheykh Eshraq

Saeed Anvari

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 83-100

Abstract

  Ibn Sina considered the way of viewing non-material (rational) beings to have a reverse process of viewing material beings. After him, Sheikh Eshraq (Suhrawardi) also explained how ...  Read More Ibn Sina considered the way of viewing non-material (rational) beings to have a reverse process of viewing material beings. After him, Sheikh Eshraq (Suhrawardi) also explained how to observe the creatures of the imaginal world with the help of this process. Instead of the five external senses that send information to common sense, this information is transferred from the soul or the imagination in the opposite direction to common sense. The necessary condition for this is that the external and internal powers are not busy, and there is an opportunity for sensual perception to affect the brain and common sense. In this way, an unseen being is represented by the person. This process happens in two states: sleep and wakefulness. Those whose souls are strong or whose bodies are weak succeed in such an observation. Since sensual perception reaches a common sense through inner powers and imagination, sometimes imagination interferes, takes possession of it, and turns what the soul has observed into its likeness or opposite. In this case, we need an interpretation of the conditions and methods examined in this article. However, in some cases, what has been observed reaches the common sense without interference, and the person observes them. The criterion for such an observation is that closing the eyes does not prevent it from being seen. In some cases, this process requires an interpretation, and this article examines the conditions. Also, this process has various applications in Islamic philosophy. With its help, the method of observing and representing angels, jinn, and demons, as well as the method of inspiration and seeing a veridical dream, and some types of magic and knowledge of the occult have been explained. In this way, it is also possible to explain the observations and sensory perceptions and hear the sounds described by Sheikh Eshraq in the stages of treading a path of mystical conduct. The types of revelation that happen through seeing the angel of revelation and hearing his voice can also be explained in this way. In some patients, the origin of these observations is purely imaginary, and the person suffers from hallucinations and observes things that have no origin other than his brain. In this way, the delusions of some patients can also be explained. This article describes and criticizes the reverse process and its applications. It has been shown that Avicenna influences Suhrawardi in this discussion, and both philosophers have proposed similar applications for this theory, with the difference that Suhrawardi extended Avicenna's thesis, which was about rational beings, to the imaginal world.

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Heidegger's Question about Meaning of Being and Genesis of Concept of Dasein

Sayyed Masoud Zamani

Volume 18, Issue 1 , September 2020, , Pages 85-104

Abstract

  The following paper follows first of all Heidegger’s question concerning meaning of Being in his early works. Then it deals with his answer to that question, which is remainded ...  Read More The following paper follows first of all Heidegger’s question concerning meaning of Being in his early works. Then it deals with his answer to that question, which is remainded unchanged in spite of the great transformations of his Being-problematic: According to Heidegger, the meaning of Being in the western history of thinking i.e. in the metaphysics has been understood always as “presence" (Anwesenheit). Heidegger not only doesn’t oppose this historical answer, but also has reflected it in his philosophical thinking. The most important consequence of this move is the emergence of the term Dasein, in that lies the meaning of Being or presence too. Heidegger owed this great ontological position to his lengthy philosophical dialogue with Aristotel. Finally this article shows how Heidegger develops step by step the presence from an Aristotelian-metaphysical position of being in general or being as such, into something concerning his special term Dasein, which includes exclusively the human being. Now human Dasein is presented by or for himself and in the world as Being-in-the-World.

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An Analysis Concerning the Meaning and Role of Reflection in the Triple Phases of Husserl’s Philosophy

Hossein Zamaniha

Volume 19, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 85-105

Abstract

  What we know today as Husserl's phenomenology is the result of his methodic attempt to understand structure of consciousness and the givenness of objects in this structure. One of the ...  Read More What we know today as Husserl's phenomenology is the result of his methodic attempt to understand structure of consciousness and the givenness of objects in this structure. One of the most important pillars of this method is what Husserl calls phenomenological reflection and contrasts it with natural or psychological reflection. From Husserl's viewpoint reflection as one of the most fundamental acts of consciousness thematizes and objectifies what has been already given implicitly. Thus, every reflection is a transition from a pre-reflective consciousness to a reflective one. In Husserl's philosophy, there are three kinds of reflection, corresponding to the triple phases of the evolution of his thought: natural reflection, phenomenological reflection and, what we call absolute or incomplete reflection.  Husserl in his works explicitly addresses the first two kinds of reflection but the last one is just understood through the deep contemplation of the third phase of his philosophy. According to Husserl every reflection has two interconnected aspects: the object of reflection and the agent or subject of reflection. In Husserl’s philosophy, corresponding to three meanings of reflection, there are three levels of self-consciousness which eventually lead to the triple conception of self or ego in his philosophy. In the present paper, while explaining the meaning of reflection in the three phases of Husserl’s philosophy, its fundamental role in each of these phases has been examined. Finally, it has been shown how changing the object of reflection in these triple phases, leads to a deeper and more fundamental understanding of the subject.

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Explaining the Problems of Dividing the First and Second Intellects Based on the Principle of Existence and its Ontological Fruits

ئohammad Daneshnahad; mohammadhasan vakili

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 91-112

Abstract

  The basis of the originality of existence created fundamental changes in philosophy that the essentials of such a theory were not followed even by Mulla Sadra. One of the essentials ...  Read More The basis of the originality of existence created fundamental changes in philosophy that the essentials of such a theory were not followed even by Mulla Sadra. One of the essentials of authenticity of existence is the changes that take place in the principle of division of rationalities into primary and secondary rationalities. The division of rationalities into the first rationality is derived from the basis of originality and sensibility, which by proposing the theory of originality of existence and adherence to its accessories, all sensory, imaginary and intellectual perceptions have truth to the extent of benefiting from existence, and based on the theory of abstraction of general concepts from the external facts general concepts have a counterpart in the world of wisdom, and none of the rationalities can be considered to have only an abstract origin without having a counterpart.The division of intellects into the first and the second rational is one of the famous philosophical divisions that has been accepted in The philosophy of masha and sadra with different interpretations. This research, with the method of library, collection and analysis of information and comparison of opinions, seeks to prove the incorrect division of rationalities and enumerates the ontological results of such forms. On this basis, first the division of intellects on the basis of the principle of essence and the principle of existence is examined, then the incorrect causes of the division of intellects are explained, and finally the ontological results of the forms are divided into the division of the first and second intellects. Among the results of this research is that in the light of existence of having general concepts in the world and abstractions and the basis of the principle of existence, it is not possible to divide the rationals into the first and second rationals; Essential unity has a weak place in carrying, and existential concepts are carried over each other based on the connection that is established between them; The division of affairs into reality and credit is incorrect, and all things are real to the extent that they benefit from existence; The division of affairs into intrinsic and transverse is incorrect because it is based on the originality of nature, while on the basis of the originality of existence and the validity of nature, there is no place for it.

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Explain the Theory of the Mismatch of Mind and Object Based on the Principle of Existence

Mohammad Daneshnahad; MohammadHasan Vakili

Volume 19, Issue 2 , January 2022, , Pages 93-110

Abstract

  The mismatch between the mind and the outside is one of the challenging issues that many Philosophers do not accept, and most Philosophers may agree that what one perceives is In accordance ...  Read More The mismatch between the mind and the outside is one of the challenging issues that many Philosophers do not accept, and most Philosophers may agree that what one perceives is In accordance with reality. Just as the matching of the worlds with each other seeks to prove the union between worthless existence and the superior existence, the matching of the mind and the object seeks to prove the union between the mind and the object. In this research, first, the theory of matching of worlds and matching of the object and the  mind and the problems of each of them are discussed in detail, among which are incorrect presuppositions such as knowing real Sensible things and not knowing real Invisible things or problems in dividing carriage into the first and common. And then the pillars of the theory of mismatch of mind and object are explained in detail in three sections, and finally the role of the theory of mismatch in the material world, example World, The world of wisdom and Singleness of divine world is examined. Among the results of the research are: 1- There is no evidence for the matching of the worlds and the matching of the mind and the object, but such the matching is impossible on the basis of the principle of existence. 2-The pillars of the theory of  mismatching are matters such as the relation of facts and beings to each other based on the principle of existence, not the matching of beings with each other, gradation of existence, existence of reality and being valuable of human perceptions. 3-The theory of mismatching of mind and object is proposed in relation to some types of present science.

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Justice in the Social Thought of Medieval Christian Philosophers

Mohsen Saboorian; Mohammad Hossein Jamalzadeh

Volume 20, Issue 1 , July 2022, , Pages 95-116

Abstract

  Justice is known to be the virtue of social structures and institutions in modern social thought. In classical thought, justice was the sum of all virtues or the highest of them, and ...  Read More Justice is known to be the virtue of social structures and institutions in modern social thought. In classical thought, justice was the sum of all virtues or the highest of them, and at the same time it was a virtue for society and a virtue for man. Evaluating the conceptual and functional evolution of justice can be a criterion for measuring the impact of various factors such as religion, culture, politics and economics in comparison with justice. The aim of the present study is to examine the concept of justice in the social thought of medieval Christian philosophers and seeks to restore the concept and function of justice in medieval philosophy in relation to social institutions. Accordingly, by emphasizing the social thought of five famous philosophers of this period, aspects of the importance of the concept of justice have been explored. Among Christian philosophers, Augustine was regarded as the initiator of Neoplatonic philosophy and Thomas Aquinas as the culmination of Aristotelian Peripatetic school. In addition, Anselm of Canterbury was regarded as a prominent Christian theologian, Meister Eckhart as a leading figure in Christian mysticism, and finally Marsilius of Padua as a revisionist political philosopher of ecclesiastical world domination. In this study, using descriptive-analytical method, it is concluded that the thinkers influenced by Neoplatonic thought, namely Augustine, Anselm and Eckhart, mainly considered justice from an individual perspective and Aristotelian thinkers, namely Aquinas and Marcellus, considered justice from a social perspective. In order to achieve that, they have considered the formation of the government and the centrality of the law necessary.

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Islamic philosophy and Mysticism and the Issue of the Development of Civilization and Culture

Shahram Pazouki

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 101-125

Abstract

  The issue of stagnation or lack of progress in Islamic culture and civilization and its causes is one of the main issues that modern Muslim intellectuals have addressed and elaborated ...  Read More The issue of stagnation or lack of progress in Islamic culture and civilization and its causes is one of the main issues that modern Muslim intellectuals have addressed and elaborated from various perspectives. Most of them believe that the main obstacle is Islamic philosophy(hekmat) and mysticism, which have hindered the progress of Islamic countries compared to the so-called Western countries. This research does not focus on the well-known factors such as scientific, social, political and geographical factors that are usually relevant for the development of civilization and culture. Rather, it investigates and analyzes this issue by arguing that the concepts of progress, civilization and culture are novel and modern concepts that are based on specific (modern) philosophical principles that originated and spread in Europe and have no precedent in any civilization and thought of non-European peoples, including Islam, even in the Christian Middle Ages. It is a novel initiative that was launched in the Western world history, and in essence, neither Islamic, Christian, nor Chinese or Indian wisdom and mysticism have obstructed its emergence. Contrary to what is claimed, in the pre-modern era, the source and basis of what is called culture and civilization in the modern era, for example in the Islamic world, were their wisdom and mysticism. To do this, the article first provides the historical background of the advocates of this opinion, who saw themselves as religious reformers or the so-called Islamic Protestants, such as Sayyed Jamaluddin Asadabadi. It also explains the history of the main concepts of this opinion, namely civilization, culture and progress, in the modern Western thought and their novelty in the non-modern thought and among the predecessors. It deals with the teachings of the great mystic Rumi as the one who is wrongly labeled as an opponent of science.The article also gives some examples of how the views of two Muslim philosophers, one from the west, Ibn Rushd, and the other from the east, Mirfenderski, could have contributed to the emergence of modern science and technology among Muslims, but they did not. The study concludes that this opinion and judgment is fundamentally flawed and is mainly due to the lack of comprehension of the foundations and principles of modern thought and secondly, Islamic philosophy and mysticism.

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"The Metaphysics of Evil"; An Ontological Interpretation of the System of Freedom

Ahmad Ebadi; Elham Sadat Karimi Douraki

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 103-125

Abstract

  The Philosophical investigations in to the Essence of Human freedom (1809) is an ontological research about freedom as human nature, which acknowledges the positive and determining ...  Read More The Philosophical investigations in to the Essence of Human freedom (1809) is an ontological research about freedom as human nature, which acknowledges the positive and determining aspect of evil in the nature of human freedom. Schelling mentions the ontological distinction of "ground" and "existence" to establish the possibility of freedom (evil) in the totality of beings, as a whole. Heidegger considers this distinction to be one of the innovations of Schelling's philosophy, and in Schilling's treatise on the Essence of human freedom (1936), he calls it "The distinction of being". In his opinion, the position of freedom in Schelling's system is realized in an ontological foundation, and his question of freedom can be transferred to the question of existence, as the fundamental question of philosophy. the important goal of this article is to analyze Heidegger's interpretation of the distinction between ground and existence as an ontological condition for the possibility of evil in Schelling's system of freedom. This research seeks answers to these two questions: How does this distinction pave the way for explaining the ontological basis of the possibility of evil? And why, in order to know these two principles, it is necessary to examine the human spirit and its essence as freedom? We will show how in Heidegger's interpretation of Schelling's reading, despite his accepted proximity to this fundamental distinction, he still fails idealist philosophy, including Schelling's philosophical system, in taking the final step beyond the fundamental structures of metaphysics of will and true liberation from metaphysical tradition.

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Explaining the Relationship Between the Consciousness of Material Beings and Their Perfectibility from Mulla Sadra’s View

Mostafa sadeghi; Mohammad Bagher Abasi

Volume 18, Issue 1 , September 2020, , Pages 105-125

Abstract

  In this paper, we review the relationship between science and the perfectionism of material beings by considering the Mulla Sadra's philosophical perspectives. Mulla Sadra, by proving ...  Read More In this paper, we review the relationship between science and the perfectionism of material beings by considering the Mulla Sadra's philosophical perspectives. Mulla Sadra, by proving the "enthusiasm of matter in the form" and presenting the theory of the "substantial motion" as well as referring to the flow of "love" in the universe; he displays a novel page of the universe's endeavor to the intended home and describes the enthusiasm, motion, and love in the universe as accompanying and parallel to science that introduces the cause of the general and extensive perfectibility of (material) beings and the promotion of their degree of existence and goal-directed departure towards "absolute completeness" (God the most high necessary existent). Also, Mulla Sadra, by being influenced by the verses of the Qur'an and the words of the mystics, clarifies the relationship between the components of the universe and their perfectionism goal; and with his unifying insight, considers the interpretation of verses such as (Behold, eventually all affairs go to Allah) that all universe is generated from God and is moving towards the Almighty God. The understanding wisdom of the motion, enthusiasm, and love in the path of perfectibility (in material beings) has evolved our approach and worldview toward creation.

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The Relationship Between Utterances and Meanings From al-Farabi’s Point Of View Considering The Usage Of “Primitive” and “Derivative” Names In The Expressing Of Philosophical Meanings

Fatemeh Shahidi Marnani

Volume 19, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 107-129

Abstract

  Between two conflicting views about the origin of language, i.e., Platonic naturalism and Aristotelian conventionalism, Farabi has his own independent original standpoint. Plato understood ...  Read More Between two conflicting views about the origin of language, i.e., Platonic naturalism and Aristotelian conventionalism, Farabi has his own independent original standpoint. Plato understood the utterance’s  imitation of the meanings to be dependent on the similarity of the Utterance’s constituent letters and sounds with the meaning, and Aristotle believed in nothing but the convention and contract in this regard between the speakers. In Farabi’s view, “the similarity between the structure of the Utterances and their meanings” is the necessary condition for the accuracy and strength of a language and guarantees the imitation of the meanings. Among the linguistic rules, he thinks, the derivation rule has the most capacity to show the similarity between the utterances and meanings and shows it in different circumstances. Some cases of it are the application of the “derivative” or “primitive” names to different levels of knowledge and genus and species of substance and attribute categories in different situations and the justification of their philosophical aspect. He explains that how the similarity between the structures of each kind of these utterances on the one hand and the characteristics and essential relationships of the philosophical concepts they refer to on the other hand, makes them qualified for this denotation. In another place, he notes that the primitive names for “being” in other languages show the characteristics and place of its signified meaning in philosophy and make the Arabic speakers aware of the possible errors they might commit due to the derivative-like appearance of this utterance.

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Sandra Harding’s Scientific Pluralism and Its Inconsistencies

Zahra Zargar

Volume 19, Issue 2 , January 2022, , Pages 111-132

Abstract

  There are three mainstreams in feminist philosophy of science: feminist empiricism, feminist standpoint theory, and feminist postmodern epistemology. Sandra Harding as a feminist philosopher ...  Read More There are three mainstreams in feminist philosophy of science: feminist empiricism, feminist standpoint theory, and feminist postmodern epistemology. Sandra Harding as a feminist philosopher of science aims to integrate standpoint theory with postmodern tendencies. This tendency is apparent in her account about scientific pluralism. One can recognize two distinct routes in Harding’s arguments for scientific pluralism. First; she argues for some kind of scientific pluralism which is based on the concept of "strong objectivity" and second; she establishes an argument in favor of a "world of sciences" which reflects post-modern concerns. The strong objectivity argument relies on standpoint theory of knowledge. It assumed that the perspectives of marginal groups can produce less distorted accounts about nature and social relations. On the other hand, the concept of the world of sciences is affected by Harding’s postmodern tendencies; according to which there is a co-constitutive relation between science and society. Harding applies both approaches in favor of scientific pluralism, but these two arguments lead to two different types of scientific pluralism. This disparity is the result of the conflicts between standpoint theory of knowledge and postmodern epistemology. In the following paper non-coherent implications of Harding’s scientific pluralism is discussed in two cases: the problem of “Realism/Anti-Realism” and the style of “social interactions in scientific community”.

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Comparison of the Narrative of the Sacrifice of Son by Abraham in Ibn ʿArabī's Mysticism and Kierkegaard's Existentialist Attitude

Mohsen Sarebannejad; Mohammad Akvan

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 113-133

Abstract

  Sacrifice of Isaac by the command of God and by the hand of Abraham is a common narrative between Judaism, Christianity and some sects of Islam. In addition to Muslim and Christian ...  Read More Sacrifice of Isaac by the command of God and by the hand of Abraham is a common narrative between Judaism, Christianity and some sects of Islam. In addition to Muslim and Christian sages and theologians such as Ibn ʿArabī', Kierkegaard, Augustine and Aquinas, this narrative has also attracted the attention of philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Kant, Hegel, Emmanuel Levinas and Derrida. Verses 1 to 19 of Chapter 22 of the Torah Genesis are the narration of Jehovah's command to Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. A command that Abraham, together with Isaac and his two slaves, traveled a three-day journey to Mount Moriah to fulfill, and just when Abraham took out the knife to slaughter his son, Jehovah's angel called him from the sky and forbade him to perform the sacrifice. Some church fathers, such as Clement and Tertullian, considered this story to be a prototype of Jesus' ascension to the cross. The explicit mention of the covenants and especially Paul's emphasis on the eternal power of God on the one hand and Abraham's faith in this absolute power that can bring even a slaughtered and dead child back to the arms of the father, and also Abraham's faith and suffering in this test are at the center Kierkegaard's attention and reflection are placed in various works such as Repetition, Either/Or, and especially Fear and Trembling. In the Holy Quran, the clearest reference to this narration is in verses 101 to 113 of Surah "As-Saaffat". This essay focuses on the religious-mystical thoughts of Ibn ʿArabī', a famous Muslim mystic, and Søren Kierkegaard, a Danish philosopher and theologian, who is mentioned as the founder of existentialism, compares Abraham's divine experiment to son sacrifice in Christian and Islamic narratives as the focus of his research. Ibn ʿArabī' in Isaac section of Fusus al-hikam (The bezels of wisdom) and Kierkegaard in the book of Fear and Trembling have attempted to interpret the divine experiment of Abraham. The main question of the research is the foundations and principles influencing the thought of Ibn ʿArabī' and Kierkegaard in the interpretation of the mentioned narrative. The results of the research show that the difference between the views of Ibn ʿArabī' and Kierkegaard is the type of view that each of them have on man and his place in the order of creation. The difference of opinion based on which is Abraham, the knight of faith and a believer in the “strength of absurd” in Kierkegaard's view and rejected in the interpretation of Isaac's face as a sheep according to Ibn ʿArabī'. Using the comparative method and relying on the data collected through library sources, this paper first compares the position of man in the thought system of Ibn ʿArabī' and Kierkegaard and then studies the opinions of both of them about the narrative of Isaac's sacrifice.

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The Constitutional Role of Imagination in History in Paul Ricoeurˊs Hermeneutics

Neda Ghiasi; Amir Maziar

Volume 20, Issue 1 , July 2022, , Pages 117-132

Abstract

  Imagination plays a main role in history by its narrative formulation. But this presence gives rise to a conflict through which, one the one hand, this narrative aspect has been discussed ...  Read More Imagination plays a main role in history by its narrative formulation. But this presence gives rise to a conflict through which, one the one hand, this narrative aspect has been discussed in aesthetics and as such affects the audience’s reading and lead him to a better understanding of historical events; On the other hand, many theorists hold that this imaginative aspect is an ornamental, and hence additional, insertion and try to eliminate it from historical content.  But what is important here is that neither of them maintains a cognitive role for imagination. Paul Ricoeur emphasizes the function of imagination, however, and seeks to demonstrate that how the constitution of imagination works here. He argues that history can reconstitute only by imagination and what imagination adds to history not only does not reduce history to literature but also improves it as a discourse and gives it more functional aspects. By exploring in Ricoeurˊs different texts, this paper aims to find a meaningful relation between history and imagination to show that how imagination modifies the reference of a historical narrative to the past reality through its creative activity. In this way, imagination provides a road through which our image of history is reconstructed.  

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Mirdamad's Theory on the External Being of Motion and Its Meanings

Mahmoud Seidi; Sayeed Muhammad Musavi

Volume 18, Issue 1 , September 2020, , Pages 127-145

Abstract

  Move and change versus stability, is one of the long-standing issues of philosophy which the great philosophers have long tried to explain and analyze it. For this reason, the study ...  Read More Move and change versus stability, is one of the long-standing issues of philosophy which the great philosophers have long tried to explain and analyze it. For this reason, the study of the external being of the motion has also entered the discussions of great philosophers such as Mirdamad. Mirdamad presents his theory of the external existence of motion in several general sections: Definition of the medial motion and traversal motion, Providing the proof to prove external existence traversal motion and the mental or imaginary existence of medial motion, external existence of traversal motion in Ibn Sina's expressions and theories. In the present study, Mirdamad's theory has been critically examined in these fields and it was proved that Mirdamad's definition of the traversal motion is further explanation of the Ibn Sina's view of the medial motion and it has nothing to do with the definition of traversal motion, which Ibn Sina considers mental and imaginary. Therefore, there is no difference between the traversal motion that Mirdamad considers it external with the moving in the medial motion that Ibn Sina considers it external. However, Mirdamad insists on the semantic difference between the two by quoting and arguing phrases from Ibn Sina's books. But it seems that the quoted and argued expressions do not imply Mirdamad's claim and do not prove his theory.

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Whatness "Active Intellect" in Ibn Bajjah's Theory of Intellect

hasan abasi hossein abadi

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 127-148

Abstract

  Active Intellect" in Ibn Bajjah's Philosophy is important in epistemology, ethics and human happiness. Therefore, the topic of "active intellect" is discussed in different ways. "Truth ...  Read More Active Intellect" in Ibn Bajjah's Philosophy is important in epistemology, ethics and human happiness. Therefore, the topic of "active intellect" is discussed in different ways. "Truth of active reason" in the epistemological and existential position, regardless of its importance for the purpose and happiness of man, is the present issue of this article. the question is, what is the existential and epistemological place of active intellect in Ibn Bajjah's theory of intellect. Is it in the human person and related to the soul, or is it in the higher world and something separate from humans? Is it one or plural? Ibn Bajjah assign to the active intellect has the epistemological position of imparting knowledge and forms to the intellects of Human and imaginary images to animals, and in terms of the existential position of the active intellect, his words are mixed and he speaks about the unity or plurality of the intellect in different levels of the intellect, according to the rationality of that intellect and its relationship with the matter. It considers the useful intellect and the active intellect as one. Therefore, in order to investigate this issue and answer the questions raised, we first explain the Cognitive Soul, then we discuss the levels of intellect and what is the active intellect in Ibn Bajjah. And finally, we will analyze and review the said content. The article is written with a descriptive-analytical method

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The Truth and Reality in Peirce’s and James’s Pragmatism

Atieh Zandieh

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 127-145

Abstract

  The truth and reality are two fundamental philosophical concepts upon which pragmatists have specific and important discussions. This paper compares Peirce’s and James’s ...  Read More The truth and reality are two fundamental philosophical concepts upon which pragmatists have specific and important discussions. This paper compares Peirce’s and James’s ideas – both of which have proposed theories that challenge traditional metaphysics - on these two fundamental concepts in order to answer two questions of (1) why James has a wider reputation, his thoughts are more pursued, and is also called the founder of pragmatism, while Peirce is the founder of Pragmatism; and (2) whether the two philosophers’ pragmatism in the theory of reality and truth has been able to free itself from metaphysical philosophy? To answer these questions, this paper addresses these two philosophers’ point of views toward the theory of the truth. Although, it seems that the two concepts of truth and reality have clear meanings, there is a difference of opinion among pragmatist philosophers. Therefore, investigating the meaning, types, criteria, and position of the truth and reality in pragmatism reflects these philosophers’ opinions on these two concepts and also, answers the research questions of this paper. To answer the research questions, this paper applied a qualitative method, used a desk study, reviewed previous studies on relevant topics, and applied analytical arguments and interpretations. This paper shows that pragmatism is based on the pragmatic maxim that Peirce wrote and James also accepted. The overall criterion of this maxim is the practical impact that are reflected in propositions, believes, and notions to evaluate their practical consequences. In their views, although there are some literal dissimilarities between different believes, they have the same practical impact and address the same matter. Thus, they made a link between the theory and practice.  However, their views on traditional metaphysics make a distinction between these two philosophers. Peirce considers the pragmatic maxim as a logical principle, connects it to the theory of meaning, and offers different criteria - such as correspodence, compatibility, coherence, and consensus of scientific community – for evaluating the truth. Therefore, he gives a social character to the truth and takes the traditional metaphysics away from his philosophy. James, however, ties it with the theory of the truth that make it incompatible with the traditional metaphysics and Pierce’s criteria. These characteristics put James’ pragmatism at the top of the later pragmatist thoughts. In addition, this article explains that although both, Peirce and James, proposed new and effective views on the truth and reality and relations between them and they challenged some of the principles of metaphysical philosophy. Therefore, they did not think outside the framework of metaphysical thinking, could not withdraw this position, and did not propose totally novel ideas.

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Envy; Kierkegaard's Critique of the Age of Reflection

Sayyed Kiarash Sheikholeslam; Sayyed Hamid Talebzadeh

Volume 19, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 131-152

Abstract

  Søren Kierkegaard (1803-1855), nineteenth century Danish thinker, is mostly known for his deliberation on individual human life in connection with Christian faith. However, next ...  Read More Søren Kierkegaard (1803-1855), nineteenth century Danish thinker, is mostly known for his deliberation on individual human life in connection with Christian faith. However, next to this context, Kierkegaard also gives an account on social or civil life, although his account on this issue is less known in comparison to the former one. The present paper is trying to investigate Kierkegaard's account of civil life, from a particular point of view. First, an account will be given of the phenomenon of envy and its various kinds, as it is treated in Kierkegaard's literature. then, the way in which, Kierkegaard considers the whole route of western philosophy - from the beginning of the New Age to the Hegelian System - as a representation of what he calls "the Age of Reflection", and opposes to "the Age of Revolution", will be pointed out. Also this will be shown that how Kierkegaard - in opposition to Hegel - does not consider "speculation" as a way out of reflection, but in fact, its completion. Finally and by focusing on the phenomenon of envy, Kierkegaard's critique of the Age of Reflection will be explained, and his account of the two sides of this particular age, i.e. its threatening and liberating sides, will be studied.

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Study of the Viewpoint of Contemporary Neo-Sadraists on the Compatibility of the Theory “Body Composed of Matter and Form” with the Theory “Body Composed of Parts”

Mostafa Sadeghi; Mohammad Bagher Abasi

Volume 19, Issue 2 , January 2022, , Pages 133-152

Abstract

  In this article, the view of contemporary Neo-Sadraists on the compatibility of the theory “Body composed of matter and form” with the theory “Body composed of parts” ...  Read More In this article, the view of contemporary Neo-Sadraists on the compatibility of the theory “Body composed of matter and form” with the theory “Body composed of parts” is studied. For this purpose, in the introduction, by pointing out that Greece is the origin of the issue of matter and form, and that Aristotle considers the body to be composed of matter and form, we express the view of Democritus, who considers the body to be composed of indivisible components. Further, we mention the views of Avicenna, Mulla Sadra, and Hadi Sabzevari, who refute the composition of the body from the parts, and then we will express the views of contemporary Neo-Sadraists such as Abdollah Javadi Amoli, Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Tabatabaei, Morteza Motahhari and Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi in this regard and clarify the differences between their views and those of previous philosophers and then, as the opinions are summarized, we conclude the compatibility of the theory “Body composed of matter and form” with the theory “Body composed of parts” from the perspective of contemporary Neo-Sadraists. This article indicates the development of the issues related to matter and form in Islamic philosophy and its gradual evolution and the opening of new horizons in the analysis of issues and is considered a contemporary philosophical achievement.

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Anthropological Tension: the Question of Human Essence and Metaphysics of Subjectivity in Kant

Ehsan Karimi Torshizi; Shahin Aavani

Volume 20, Issue 1 , July 2022, , Pages 133-150

Abstract

  It is widely known that Kant refers all the three basic problems of philosophy to the single ultimate question “what is man?”, the task of finding a solution for which is ...  Read More It is widely known that Kant refers all the three basic problems of philosophy to the single ultimate question “what is man?”, the task of finding a solution for which is assigned to the philosophical anthropology. One considers Critique of Pure Reason in this regard, however, one surprisingly finds that this question is entirely absent from Kant’s own magnum opus. By its very nature indeed, transcendental philosophy is incapable of arising this question thus formulated, since it eventually leads to a subject, not to a human being. Heidegger’s exegetical reading of Kant notwithstanding, one should not simply conclude, however, that the question of the essence of man eventuates by Kant in the formation of a metaphysics of subjectivity. Kant’s doctrine of transcendental unity of apperception is not so much a subject-centered metaphysical theory, of the sort that Heidegger assumes, as it denotes a transcendental formulation of Kant’s general anthropological conception. What lies at the core of this anthropological view is the twofoldness of human place in cosmos, in terms of which the tension between the marginality and, simultaneously, centrality of man in relation to the world can be articulated. We refer to this anthropological conception as “anthropological tension”, due to the irreducible duality that lies at its core.

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The Relationship Between Logic and Grammar from abū Nasr al-Farabi’s Point Of View

Fatemeh Shahidi

Volume 20, Issue 2 , January 2023, , Pages 135-158

Abstract

  After the translation of logical and philosophical works of Greeks  in To Arabic, in the Islamic society, a serious conflict occurred between logic and Arabic grammar. The grammarians ...  Read More After the translation of logical and philosophical works of Greeks  in To Arabic, in the Islamic society, a serious conflict occurred between logic and Arabic grammar. The grammarians considered logic to be useless and irrelevant to their culture, and the logicians considered language just as a tool to convey the statements in the field of thought, and by the criteria of logic. This controversy is mainly represented within the famous debate between Abū Bishr Mattā ibn Yūnus and Abu Sa`īd Al-Sīrāfī, in which  one (Mattā) emphasizes the instrumentality of Arabic syntax, and denies its functionality in guidance and correctness of thought; while the other (al-Sirāfī) emphasizes the obsoleteness of logic and sufficiency of Arabic syntax to ensure the accuracy of thought. In this conflict, Farabi (as a logician) took a third position, despite logicians such as Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsī, Yaḥyá ibn ʿAdī and Abū Sulaymān Muhammad Sijistānī. In the usual linguistic discussions of the Islamic society, he adopted a new perspective by taking philosophical-linguistic issues relating to pre-Islamic period into account. Afterward he would find different answers to the problems that had arisen. He believed in a kind of “science of language" ("Elm al-Lesān") common among all languages of all societies, which due to this commonality, would be considered equivalent to logic, and perhaps a part of that. Therefore, logic and grammar were considered to have the same component, which is common among all languages. According to Farabi, ideally all special grammars in setting their partial rules, should follow the rules of this component, because in all societies the words of the language should be able to imitate  the meanings and the beings, and these logical rules can guarantee the imitation of relationships between meanings and categories that are derived from their beings in the Universe. Farabi's emphasis on the commonality of this kind of linguistic rules could be an evidence of his agreement on some sort of a universal grammar in which, the rules of utterances construction - specially the rules of construction of derivative words- plays the main role. Here is the evidence of Farabi's attention toward ancient traditions of linguistics, especially the ones influenced by Dionysius Thrax, Markus Terentius Varro and Priscianus Caesariensis. Dionysius Thrax wrote the first concise grammar of the Greek language influenced by Aristotelian thought. Varro  Brings to light two significant distinctions within the rules of language, which had never been considered before: one is the distinction between morphology (rules of word construction) and syntax (rules of phrase construction); and the other is the distinction between morphological changes and derivational changes in the words, as well as the distinction between their features and rules. Also Priscianus is one of the first linguists whom in order to adapt the Latin grammar to the Greek grammar, considered the Aristotelian logic and categorization to be the criteria of the rules of the language structures. The act of taking the rules of the Greek language, as a pattern for the Latin language rules reveals that he considered common general aspects among different  grammars. Farabi's statement on the newfound problem of the relation - or better to say, the opposition - of grammar and logic, which due to the cultural and religious condition specified to the Islamic world, was proposed for the first time in the history of linguistics; he introduces rules equivalent to logic rules, for construction of the words in all languages grammar. These rules are common among all languages, and they guarantee the words imitation of implied meanings. Farabi's understanding of the characteristics of these signified meanings, which themselves were derived from the beings of the external world, was based on a philosophical perspective toward the world and the beings; and he believed that among all different language rules, the rules of derivation have the greatest capacity ​​to signify the beings, in the same way that they are understood in philosophy. Al-Farabi in different parts of his works especially in the book of letters makes extensive use of the rules of three types of word structure, i.e. the words "possessive primitive words", "non-possessive primitive words" and "derivative words": For naming different levels of knowledge (including knowledge consisting of/ knowledge of referable and perceptible like white (abyadh); and an abstract and imperceptible independent knowledge like whiteness (bayādh) in all languages, the structure of words signifying to categories (including both substantial species and genuses, accidental species and genuses) in all languages; and also the characteristics of the word signifying to the most important philosophical concept in All languages ​​(of course, except Arabic language), which exactly imitates the characteristics of this concept in philosophy. Considering these linguistic opinions of Farabi, furthermore the history of linguistics after this era, we could truly consider Farabi beliefs on the unity of modes of being, modes of undrestanding and modes of signification, as well as a belief in an universal grammar prior to the  Modists (the believers in speculative grammar); a Linguistic approach in the late Middle Ages, mostly influenced by Priscianus in the history of thoughts, which continued to the contemporary period.

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Reichenbach and Transition from Synthetic a Priori to Relativized a Priori

Ahmad Ebadi; Mohammad Emdadi Madouleh

Volume 18, Issue 1 , September 2020, , Pages 147-167

Abstract

  Hans Reichenbach has two contrast readings in The Theory of Relativity and APrioriKnowledge (1920) and TheRiseonScientific Philosophy (1951) from ...  Read More Hans Reichenbach has two contrast readings in The Theory of Relativity and APrioriKnowledge (1920) and TheRiseonScientific Philosophy (1951) from Kant's synthetic a priori judgments. The second book rethinking synthetic a priori through the theory of relativity, but The first book seeks to reject these judgments. in 1920, by the distinction between axioms of connection and coordination, he presented two different conceptions of Kant's the a priori: 1. Necessary and unrevisable, 2. The constitutive object of knowledge. Reichenbach maintains the second meaning by rejecting the first meaning and knows it an Einstein doctrine. He blames early positivism for not paying attention to the role of axioms of coordination. Reichenbach's ideas about relativized a priori can reflect and consider: 1. Choosing an approach between Kant and earlier empiricism in the review of synthetic a priori to relativized a priori, 2. Accessing an ideal of definitive scientific philosophy despite critique on Kant's absolutism, 3. inattention to differences in the concept of the convention with Poincaré and logical positivists, 4. Neglecting from link Einstein's theory of relativity with Kant's synthetic a priori, 5. Lack of a clear pattern for separating the principle a priori from the principle experimental. The purpose of this paper is to reconstruct, completion, and development Reichenbach's theory of relativized a priori in the methodology of science.

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