Philosophy

A hermeneutic analysis of Mencius' philosophizing about politics

ali aqajani

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 27 August 2023

Abstract

  Mencius is one of the most important master philosophers in the Chinese paradigm and Confucian tradition, and the article analyzes his philosophizing about politics based on Skinner's ...  Read More Mencius is one of the most important master philosophers in the Chinese paradigm and Confucian tradition, and the article analyzes his philosophizing about politics based on Skinner's hermeneutic method. He is both an interpreter of Confucius and an independent theorist and philosopher in the fields of society. Based on this, in response to the question of what Mencius' political philosophizing is, the hypothesis of the article considers four hermeneutic processes and considering the influence of mental contexts on the one hand and objective contexts on the other hand, the conventional norms of Mencius' time, including the norms for and against takes into account The favorable norms are in the Confucian school, and the conventional opposite norms are crystallized in Taoist, Mohist and legalist political philosophy. Then, the article imagines and analyzes Mencius' occupations in those norms and observes and expresses Mencius's political philosophizing through it. Based on this process, his affirmative and negative possessions in the conventional norms can be seen in the promise of the legitimacy of the two bases of heaven and earth, the right of revolution, the fusion of ethics and politics, the utopia based on the rule of Hakim-Shahriar and an educated, virtuous and prosperous nation. Worldly and spiritual progress, meritocracy, political and social justice and peace are received.

---

• View Article

A Critique of Proving the Substantial Movement by means of Subordination, Affair (Shaʾn) and Causality

Mahdi Assadi

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 18 December 2023

Abstract

  Mullā Ṣadrā’s most famous reason to prove the substantial movement (al-ḥarakat al-juharīyyah) is the one that persists in the existence of a special relation between accident ...  Read More Mullā Ṣadrā’s most famous reason to prove the substantial movement (al-ḥarakat al-juharīyyah) is the one that persists in the existence of a special relation between accident and substance and is explained by such expressions as accident’s being subordinate (tābiʿīyyah) to, caused by, inseparable of, and affair (shaʾn) of substance. Thus, the substance moves a fortiori. Such proofs are comprehensively evaluated and criticized in this paper. According to the substantial rest critique, the accidental rest too is evidence of the substantial rest and the substance must contradictorily be both in rest and movement. In addition, since all material substances are not proved to actually move, the universal substantial movements cannot be proved. In the not being causal relation between substance and accident critique, that claim that the accident and accidental movement is effect, affair and existence manner of substance is criticized by means of several proofs and counterexamples. Again, the critique of existence unity in essence and its accidents questions the movement of substance existence to be proved. In proving the substantial movement by means of subordination and of relativeness of movement critique, it is shown that Ṣadrā has incorrectly generalized the rule that the correlatives are equal counterparts (mutakāfiʾān). So, the difficulty of the coexistence of substance and relation accident and the difficulty of the presence of one unique thing in the essences of two different objects are appeared and such strange things as the substantial redness is proved if this substantial movement proof is correct.

---

• View Article

Nietzsche's "Will to Power": A Psychological Interpretation and its Ethical Implications

MUHAMMADHOSSEIN امامی; ahmad Fazeli; Hossein Mesbahian

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 17 April 2024

Abstract

  Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of "will to power" stands as a cornerstone of his philosophy, yet its interpretation remains a contentious issue. Among the various proposed ...  Read More Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of "will to power" stands as a cornerstone of his philosophy, yet its interpretation remains a contentious issue. Among the various proposed interpretations, the ontological, metaphorical, and psychological perspectives each offer distinct understandings of this complex concept. While definitively establishing the "correct" interpretation is challenging due to the complexities of Nietzsche's writing and expression, this essay argues that the psychological interpretation aligns more effectively with the core tenets of his thought. The essay begins by providing a concise overview of the metaphysical, metaphorical, and psychological interpretations of "will to power." Acknowledging the inherent uncertainty in interpreting Nietzsche's ideas, it argues that the psychological interpretation, emphasizing the "will to power" as an intrinsic human drive for self-overcoming and growth, resonates more strongly with the broader themes of Nietzsche's philosophy, particularly perspectivism. Furthermore, It addresses concerns that this interpretation might endorse oppression and autocracy as necessary outcomes of the "will to power." Through careful analysis, the essay demonstrates how the psychological interpretation, when understood accurately, does not inherently support such harmful practices. In contrast, it highlights how this interpretation, emphasizing self-mastery can potentially contribute to moral development and a pursuit of excellence. Finally, the essay emphasizes the importance of understanding the foundational concepts of his philosophy, such as perspectivism, for accurately interpreting his ideas. By prioritizing evidence-based analysis and nuanced understanding, we can navigate the complexities of Nietzsche's thought and appreciate its enduring relevance in contemporary discussions about ethics, individual responsibility, and the pursuit of a meaningful life.

---

• View Article

Critiques, Editing, and Epistemology of Testimony

Seyyed Mohsen Eslami

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 1-14

Abstract

  The relationship between the author and the authored text is important from various aspects. Parts of the ethics of research and writing dealing with plagiarism and ghostwriting may ...  Read More The relationship between the author and the authored text is important from various aspects. Parts of the ethics of research and writing dealing with plagiarism and ghostwriting may be seen as about this very issue. I argue that, along with this, that editing may distort the relationship between the author and the authored text and put the readers in a problematic epistemic situation. In this regard, I appeal to the debates over epistemology of testimony. There are at least two general views about trust in others’ testimony: that we need positive reasons or evidence to trust, or that it suffices if there are no negative ones against the trust. It turns out that either way, to trust critical book reviews (and similar forms of writing) we need reasons or evidence for and against to trust the author. And as long as editing may eliminate such evidence, it weakens our epistemic situation as we become unable to take an epistemically proper stance toward the author. In the end, an objection is addressed. One might say that the same worry applies to all sorts of texts, and thus editing becomes basically wrong – not only in the case of short critical writings. In response, I argue that this is not necessarily the case since such forms of writing have specific features. Meanwhile, it seems true that considerations about epistemology of testimony can lead to further questions about editing in general

---

• View Article
• PDF 445.87 K

Tracing Suhrawardi's Theory of the Immateriality of Imagination in the Works of Ibn Sina

Ali Asghar Jafari Valani; Donya Asadi Fakhrnezad

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 15-36

Abstract

  Sheikh Eshraq, by acknowledging the existence of various faculties for the soul and considering imagination as one of these faculties, he has aligned his perspective with Ibn Sina's ...  Read More Sheikh Eshraq, by acknowledging the existence of various faculties for the soul and considering imagination as one of these faculties, he has aligned his perspective with Ibn Sina's view. Ibn Sina contends that all soul faculties, except the rational faculty, are material. Therefore, according to Ibn Sina, imagination, besides having its own material nature, is also impressed in a material locus. The faculty of imagination, based on the functions of "combination and elaboration," provides the necessary forms and meanings for reason to achieve intellectual perception. On the other hand, Sheikh Eshraq rejects the concept of the imaginative faculty and imaginal forms in the sense intended by Ibn Sina, considering imaginary forms as suspended images not located in any place or space. Although these forms occasionally manifest in appearances, those appearances should not be considered the actual place or space of those forms. In other words, Suhrawardi attributes imaginative perception, like all perceptions, to the immediate knowledge of the soul. Despite adhering to Ibn Sina regarding the corporeality of imagination, Suhrawardi views imaginal forms as independent, remaining, and existing in the "Greater Imagination" (Khayal Mutaqaddim). Although he designates the imaginative faculty as material, he doesn't find compatibility between the perceiver and the perceived and believes that the soul engages in perceiving imaginal forms through examples. Therefore, it seems that while Suhrawardi aligns with Ibn Sina's perspective to some extent, he diverges in various aspects of the imagination discourse. The researcher concludes that Suhrawardi's foundational thoughts in this discussion are rooted in his critical considerations of Ibn Sina's statements. Sheikh Eshraq, albeit not in a detailed and organized manner but generally, pays attention to the simplicity of imagination as the basis for criticisms in some of his works such as "Al-Mabahith" and "Tebi'at" in "Al-Shifa

---

• View Article

Ibn Sina on The Role of The Estimative Faculty in Action

Saeed Hassanzadeh; Mohammad Saeedimehr; Reza Akbari

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 37-60

Abstract

  From Ibn Sina's point of view, the estimative faculty is one of the most important cognitive principles of action. The prior perception of action, the use of composite imagination for ...  Read More From Ibn Sina's point of view, the estimative faculty is one of the most important cognitive principles of action. The prior perception of action, the use of composite imagination for action, the emergence of desire and anger through the perception of profit and harm, helping practical intellect, creating some psychological qualities such as fear or hope, producing false statements, influencing outside the body and mediating between physical states and action are among the functions of this faculty. This faculty needs to be accompanied by other cognitive faculties to have its functions. Due to its association with intellect, human estimation has achieved another function such as dogmatic judgment and making universal propositions. Similarity, experience, needs of other faculties, and the merciful inspirations of God are among the ways through which estimation reaches its perceptions without the help of intellect. In most cases, estimation perceives benefits and harms without judgment but with conceptual perception. Ibn Sina's statements about image eliciting propositions and the passivity of the soul from imaginations prove this claim. Despite Ibn Sina's attention to various dimensions of estimation and its role in action, his thought is incoherent and ambiguous in some cases. For instance, attributing universal perception to estimation in some cases and the impossibility of explaining some functions of estimation

---

• View Article
• PDF 1.02 M

Aesthetics Arguments from the Perspective of C .S. Louis

Maryam Seif; Farah Ramin

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 61-78

Abstract

  While discussions on beauty in the works of philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoreans, and others have been documented, it became a significant epistemological domain from the ...  Read More While discussions on beauty in the works of philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoreans, and others have been documented, it became a significant epistemological domain from the 18th century onwards. The connection between beauty and its truth has been articulated among Western philosophers as evidence for God's existence. The nature of the aesthetic argument and how it proves the existence of the divine through the beauties of the world is explored by Louis in a manner that the researcher seeks to analyze. Based on this, the writer, through sub-questions and a descriptive-analytical approach, aims to study and examine the dimensions of this issue. The research findings indicate that this argument attempts to prove the existence of God through both epistemic and ontological ways. These methods focus on our ability to recognize beauty or the inherent beauty in existence itself. C.S. Lewis's perspective on beauty is rich and distinctive, illuminating that he considers the longing for beauty a natural inclination connected to a dependency and, by establishing a link between the beauty of nature and the existence of God as the creator of the world, he provides evidence for this argument. Although challenges such as the rejection of natural inclination and the existence of counterexamples for satisfying human desires have been raised against this argument, it remains a novel initiative in the contemporary era. It continues to be a focal point of attention

---

• View Article
• PDF 471.51 K

The Classification of Intelligibles According to Avicenna

javad soufi; Mahdi Azimi

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 79-102

Abstract

  After the classification of intelligibles into first intelligibles, secondary philosophical intelligibles and secondary logical intelligibles, was presented by Mirdamad and confirmed ...  Read More After the classification of intelligibles into first intelligibles, secondary philosophical intelligibles and secondary logical intelligibles, was presented by Mirdamad and confirmed and consolidated by Mulla Sadra, the final point of view in the classification of intelligibles has been considered until today. However, there are differences in the views of those regarding the philosophers who lived before Mirdamad, such as Avicenna. Some hold that Avicenna believes in the threefold classification of intelligibles in such a way that the secondary intelligibles is equal to the logical secondary intelligibles but although he knew the philosophical second intelligibles, he did not put an independent term for them. On the other hand, another point of view says that Avicenna believes in a dual division, and in his opinion, the first intelligibles are not only first intelligibles that known as substantive concepts, but also considered philosophical concepts  that known as secondary philosophical intelligibles in addition to substantive concepts, and in his opinion, the secondary intelligibles are the same logical secondary intelligibles. According to this research, avicenna classified intelligibles into two categories, first and secondary, in a primary division, not the triple classification that some have thought and not the dual division that is assumed in the second view, but in the way that he classified intelligibles into two categories, first and second, in a primary classification Then, some secondary intelligibles are discussed in logic from the perspective of what associate to them  that is achieving the our logical goal, otherwise according to him The proof and how they exist are discussed in philosophy. They are therefore essentially secondary philosophical intelligibles (to use well-known phrase) and accidently logical secondary inelligibles. As a result, according to Avicenna not only the secondary inelligibles not equivalent to the secondary logical intelligibles but  includes them and philosophical concepts

---

• View Article
• PDF 543.45 K

"The Metaphysics of Evil"; An Ontological Interpretation of the System of Freedom

Ahmad Ebadi; Elham Sadat Karimi Douraki

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 103-125

Abstract

  The Philosophical investigations in to the Essence of Human freedom (1809) is an ontological research about freedom as human nature, which acknowledges the positive and determining ...  Read More The Philosophical investigations in to the Essence of Human freedom (1809) is an ontological research about freedom as human nature, which acknowledges the positive and determining aspect of evil in the nature of human freedom. Schelling mentions the ontological distinction of "ground" and "existence" to establish the possibility of freedom (evil) in the totality of beings, as a whole. Heidegger considers this distinction to be one of the innovations of Schelling's philosophy, and in Schilling's treatise on the Essence of human freedom (1936), he calls it "The distinction of being". In his opinion, the position of freedom in Schelling's system is realized in an ontological foundation, and his question of freedom can be transferred to the question of existence, as the fundamental question of philosophy. the important goal of this article is to analyze Heidegger's interpretation of the distinction between ground and existence as an ontological condition for the possibility of evil in Schelling's system of freedom. This research seeks answers to these two questions: How does this distinction pave the way for explaining the ontological basis of the possibility of evil? And why, in order to know these two principles, it is necessary to examine the human spirit and its essence as freedom? We will show how in Heidegger's interpretation of Schelling's reading, despite his accepted proximity to this fundamental distinction, he still fails idealist philosophy, including Schelling's philosophical system, in taking the final step beyond the fundamental structures of metaphysics of will and true liberation from metaphysical tradition.

---

• View Article
• PDF 953.21 K

Whatness "Active Intellect" in Ibn Bajjah's Theory of Intellect

hasan abasi hossein abadi

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 127-148

Abstract

  Active Intellect" in Ibn Bajjah's Philosophy is important in epistemology, ethics and human happiness. Therefore, the topic of "active intellect" is discussed in different ways. "Truth ...  Read More Active Intellect" in Ibn Bajjah's Philosophy is important in epistemology, ethics and human happiness. Therefore, the topic of "active intellect" is discussed in different ways. "Truth of active reason" in the epistemological and existential position, regardless of its importance for the purpose and happiness of man, is the present issue of this article. the question is, what is the existential and epistemological place of active intellect in Ibn Bajjah's theory of intellect. Is it in the human person and related to the soul, or is it in the higher world and something separate from humans? Is it one or plural? Ibn Bajjah assign to the active intellect has the epistemological position of imparting knowledge and forms to the intellects of Human and imaginary images to animals, and in terms of the existential position of the active intellect, his words are mixed and he speaks about the unity or plurality of the intellect in different levels of the intellect, according to the rationality of that intellect and its relationship with the matter. It considers the useful intellect and the active intellect as one. Therefore, in order to investigate this issue and answer the questions raised, we first explain the Cognitive Soul, then we discuss the levels of intellect and what is the active intellect in Ibn Bajjah. And finally, we will analyze and review the said content. The article is written with a descriptive-analytical method

---

• View Article
• PDF 916.69 K

Hajhosseini's Non-Truth-Functional Semantics

Asadollah Falahi

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 149-166

Abstract

  Mortaza Hajhosseini introduced two truth-functional and non-truth-functional systems in the second edition of his book Two Non-Classical Logic Systems, A New Outlook on Elements of ...  Read More Mortaza Hajhosseini introduced two truth-functional and non-truth-functional systems in the second edition of his book Two Non-Classical Logic Systems, A New Outlook on Elements of Logic. In other articles, I have reviewed the natural deduction and the semantics of the truth-functional system. In this paper, I will address the semantics of the non-truth-functional system and the meta-theorems of soundness and completeness that he claimed to have proven. I demonstrate that: 1. This semantics is based on a new set theory that has not yet been formulated. 2. The definition of ‘model’ in this book defines ‘complete models,’ while all introduced models are ‘incomplete models’. 3. The truth conditions of non-truth-functional formulas are reminiscent of similar formula truth conditions in logic, as emphasized by C.I. Lewis, but are valid in Libnizian semantics. 4. This semantics is not consistent with the proof theory of the book. 5. Therefore, the validity and completeness consequences are actually incorrect and have counterexamples. 6. Negation operators in this non-truth-functional system have been considered truth-functional, while they should be non-truth-functional. 7. A finite number of relationships (exactly five) have been introduced in this semantics, while this number is infinite. 8. Therefore, non-truth-functional logic must be undecidable, while the non-truth-functional system has been declared decidable

---

• View Article
• PDF 522.61 K

An Analysis of the Transcendental Philosophy Achievements on Shiite Ijtihad: the Case Study of Existential Unity

Ali larijani; Seyed Mostafa Mohaghegh Damad; Mohammad Hossein MotahariFarimani

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 167-190

Abstract

  This paper is to investigate the possibility of the lack of influence of philosophical research in the issuance of jurisprudence rulings (Ahkam al-fiqhiyah) and its purpose is to prove ...  Read More This paper is to investigate the possibility of the lack of influence of philosophical research in the issuance of jurisprudence rulings (Ahkam al-fiqhiyah) and its purpose is to prove this influence by studying cases of unity of existence (Wahdat al-wujud). Some jurists in their rulings related to unbelievers (Kuffar) as well as in the rulings of the heretical books (Kutub al-zelal) dealt with the issue of the unity of existence and believing in it, and judged the legitimacy or illegitimacy of such a point of view, and according to that, have issued rulings about those who believe in it. As described in this paper in a descriptive-analytical way, the emergence of jurisprudence in this regard is a function of the encounters and understanding of jurists with philosophical opinions. Based on this, after assessing examples of jurisprudence of the last few centuries and clarifying the background philosophical or mystical presuppositions, the position of Sadr al-Mutalahin's interpretation of disagreements in comparison to other interpretations has been clarified and the result of its acceptance or non-acceptance in the judgment of jurists has been determined. As the result, at the first step, it is revealed that Sadr al-Maltahin's perception of the unity of existence is different from the mystic version, and in the other hand, the acceptance of this interpretation can resolve the duality and otherness between the monotheism of jurists and mystics. Lastly, with the help of this philosophical research, the ijtihad of the jurists should be freed from the unwarranted attribution of the of disbelief and misguidance

---

• View Article
• PDF 547.26 K

Considerations about Form in Avicenna's Hylomorphism and Kite Fine's Hylomorphism

Hamideh Mokhtari

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 191-219

Abstract

  According to the theory of "Hylomorphism", the structure of material objects is composed of two components, matter and form. "Avicenna" and "Kit Fine" believe in Hylomorphism. The main ...  Read More According to the theory of "Hylomorphism", the structure of material objects is composed of two components, matter and form. "Avicenna" and "Kit Fine" believe in Hylomorphism. The main point of the article is to find out, what is Avicenna's response to contemporary Hylomorphism? This effort is focused on the form and has several stages; 1. The nature of the form, 2. The proof of the form, 3. The possibility of presenting a hierarchical structure of the metaphysics of objects. According to Fine, the form is an immaterial part and constituent of the object. In material objects with timeless components, form is a property or relationship between the material component of the object, and in objects with temporal components, form is a function of time on objects and maintains the survival of the object over time. Avicenna believes in at least two types of face; Physical form is an essence property common to all objects and at least one form is a type. Avicenna, like Fain, considers the form in composite objects to be a substantial and immaterial part, but according to him, the nature of the form is the same in all composite objects. Although Avicenna's argument to prove the form is different from Fine's, but according to Avicenna and Fine, essence property is constitution, and this constituent is the form. The most important proof of Avicenna's form must be reconstructed. Summary of the revised argument: essence means the constituent, and the constituent is the form. So Fine and Avicenna accept that a property that is essence is a constituent and vice versa, and the constituent is nothing but form. One of the advantages of Fine's theory is that material objects have a hierarchical structure, in Avicenna's philosophy, it is possible to present hierarchical structure of the metaphysics of objects

---

• View Article
• PDF 581.29 K

Bergson’s Footsteps in Heidegger’s Interpretation of Time

Hussein Malakooti; Bijan Abdolkarimi; Ali Moradkhani

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 221-236

Abstract

  At the beginning of Being and Time, Bergson's name comes alongside Aristotle’s name when Heidegger tried to distinguish the concept of temporality from traditional time. Now, ...  Read More At the beginning of Being and Time, Bergson's name comes alongside Aristotle’s name when Heidegger tried to distinguish the concept of temporality from traditional time. Now, the question is why after Aristotle, the name of Bergson comes? If he meant to name the last philosopher, why didn’t he mention Husserl, who was Heidegger’s professor and was supposed to have a lecture about Time-consciousness? Why not Hegel, whose interpretation of the concept of time is the subject of the penultimate chapter in Being and Time? Why not Dilthey, whose thoughts are the focus of Heidegger’s most critical early investigations of time? However, in the footnote near the end of Being and Time, Heidegger admits that he only wanted to distinguish his thoughts from Bergson about the concept of time. But our investigations show something different. It shows that Heidegger used Bergson’s concept of time to build his theory in Being and Time. Although, recently, researchers gave a great interest to Bergson's work and his influences on Gilles Deleuze's philosophy, but the questions about Bergson's influence on phenomenology and Heidegger's philosophy had been unanswered. The increasing attention of scholars toward these questions is promising, but not enough. This article tries to answer some of these questions.

---

• View Article
• PDF 470.24 K

Isotopic Conditions of Capitalism: The possibility of Revolution in the Schizophrenic Philosophy of Deleuze-Guattari

Mahdi Momeninia; Asghar Vaezi

Volume 21, Issue 2 , March 2024, , Pages 237-260

Abstract

  In Deleuze - Guattari's schizophrenic or onto - ethic - aesthetic philosophy , existence is closely along with aesthetics and ethics ; an act of revolution that connects and binds formerly ...  Read More In Deleuze - Guattari's schizophrenic or onto - ethic - aesthetic philosophy , existence is closely along with aesthetics and ethics ; an act of revolution that connects and binds formerly separate spheres . This approach to existence also requires a reconsideration of pre-existing realms. and even more so , a critique of any educational, social, or therapeutic institution that obstructs the creative process and the élan of schizophrenic desires  . Accordingly , the capitalist machine and all its subordinate apparatuses , by limiting schizophrenic desires of desiring-machines, deserves more criticism and reconsideration from the schizophrenic philosophy onto -ethico - aesthetic point of view than any other institution ; However , the difficulty of analyzing the repressive institutions manifests itself in the moment of criticism because the subject of such research and criticism has an indescribable desire to axiomatize everything - even the revolution and anything related to schizophrenic philosophies. In this research , we attempt to look closely at the fundamental concepts of schizophrenic philosophy , such as multiplicity and subjectivity , while plotting the revolutionary path of Deleuze - Guattari philosophy and Its critiques of repressive systems and therapeutic or organizational apparatus below , and examine the routs of evolution and exit from the isotopic conditions of the capitalist machine

---

• View Article
• PDF 522.54 K

Formulation of Ethics and Family Education in the Philosophy of Mencius

ali aqajani

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 1-23

Abstract

  Based on the theoretical framework of the paradigm, in response to the question of what are the foundations and approaches of ethics and family education in the philosophy of ancient ...  Read More Based on the theoretical framework of the paradigm, in response to the question of what are the foundations and approaches of ethics and family education in the philosophy of ancient China and Mencius in particular, it proposes the hypothesis that Mencius in the Confucian intellectual system, but with the innovation of the paradigm (model) and in the light of it, he has had a more spiritual approach in the analysis of ethics and upbringing, moral rules, the network of the moral system and the virtues of the family system. He has a stronger and more transparent metaphysical approach and a great emphasis on human goodness, which is very frequent and effective in educational and moral issues. From his point of view, the relationship between husband and wife is the beginning of all human relationships and has a major contribution to the peace of society. According to Mencius, harmony between husband and wife, kind treatment of children, division of labor and continuation of service to parents after death are important aspects of family. The behavior of the government in such a way that people can easily form a family; The relationship between kindness to the child and his conscientiousness and order in the country; Determining domestic affairs by the wife and business affairs by the husband; strict father and kind mother; not publicizing parents' mistakes; and graded love and affection with family priority; The findings of the research. Mencius is an ethical philosopher who thinks within the Confucian tradition; But in ontology, it has a more and more transparent metaphysical approach; Therefore, he clearly ties ethics and education and its foundations, especially in the family, with the sky and makes it relatively spiritual, then links it with the field of politics. According to Mencius, nature is the source of ethics and all ethics are intertwined in nature. In anthropology, he places great emphasis on human goodness and believes that the sense of distinguishing between right and wrong is common to all human beings. According to his point of view, the goodness of nature is internal and is not imposed from outside, and it arises from the active and spontaneous power of nature, and the neglect of goodness is due to forgetfulness and lack of thinking. According to Mencius, the four virtues of piety, wisdom, knowledge, and benevolence are among the virtues that family upbringing and ethics play an essential role in creating and nurturing. In philosophy, Mencius believes in the continuity of the individual, family and government and sees a linear relationship between them. He believes that the root of the country is in the family and the root of the family is in the individual. Layered or dubious love and affection, which has different degrees and ranks, and love for family, relatives, and relatives is at the center of it, is the focal point that passionately motivated him to criticize the competing views of the Confucian school and outline his theoretical foundations; An effort that is based on two foundations: 1. Negation of speculation and action for oneself or piety for its inherent goodness; and 2. The innateness and naturalness of love is stable. (results).

---

• View Article
• PDF 863.28 K

The Contrast Between the Concept of Hannah Arendt's Actor and Heideggerian Solipsistic Dasein

Elmira Arshadi Tehrani; Mohammad Shokry; Ali Moradkhani

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 25-42

Abstract

  The twentieth-century prominent political thinker, Hannah Arendt, has gone through a very different course from his master, Martin Heidegger, in presenting her viewpoints on the correlation ...  Read More The twentieth-century prominent political thinker, Hannah Arendt, has gone through a very different course from his master, Martin Heidegger, in presenting her viewpoints on the correlation between political action (praxis) and overcoming totalitarianism. Applying a phenomenological analysis of history, she surveys the human condition from the pre-Socratic era to now in order to illuminate this correlation. As a political existentialist, Arendt presumes that the privation of true political philosophy throughout the history of Western metaphysical tradition is the consequence of trivializing the necessity of action in general and praxis in particular compared to the centrality of speculation in post-Socratic tradition, especially Platonic school. According to Arendt, pre-Socratic Polis is the ideal political community, where the uniqueness of individuals -represented through their speech and action- is celebrated while being with "the others"; however, speculation in seclusion has become far more authentic than action in public after Socrates' trial. No need to mention Heidegger’s influential impact on Arendt's critical approach to Western metaphysical tradition; however, she emphasizes the disclosure of the actors’ “who” through action and speech in the public sphere, contrary to Heidegger’s disclosure of Dasein as “Aletheia” or the revelation of the truth. To phrase it, Arendt is switching over “being” to “appearance” which is manifested in action and speech in her thought. Her emphasis on man’s presence and his interaction with the others in the plurality of the public sphere to liberate from the crisis of twentieth-century totalitarianism and alienation stands in contrast to the extravagant egoism and solipsism of Heideggerian Dasein that have been recognized and criticized by Arendt herself. The one which is albeit known as being-in-the-world according to Arendt, but it is considered as inauthentic if being presented in the plurality of Mitsein (being-with), having an “Idle Talk” with them and consequently falling into everydayness. Therefore, Dasein prefers to remain an “ideal self” in isolation and seclusion according to Arendt.Arendt maintains that Heidegger's observation of Dasein as an "ideal self" is no way dissimilar to the post-Socratic man of speculation, who is engaged in noetic thinking in his privacy, the attitude that has diminished action in favor of reflection all through the Western metaphysical tradition. Mentioning the crisis of the twentieth-century totalitarianism in Nazi Germany, Stalinist Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, Arendt critically assumes that ontological egoism and solipsism have eliminated politics and successively prepared the ground for the rise of the mentioned crisis, whereas totalitarianism seeks atomized and disjointed societies. Applying a descriptive- analytic methodology, the present research attempts to compare Arendt's and Heidegger's standpoints towards the above concern and elucidates Arendt's criticism of Heidegger in clearing the crisis of totalitarianism. It also adverts Arendt's solution to exhaust the mentioned crisis, "love of the world", which creates the necessary impulsion and stimulus to overcome solipsism and triggers acting in public sphere, according to Arendt.

---

• View Article
• PDF 655.44 K

A Critical Study of “Constancy of the Change” in the Relationship Between the Constant and the Changing

Mahdi Assadi

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 43-58

Abstract

  Mullā Ṣadrā, in a discussion like the relationship between the constant and the changing, insists on constancy of the change and says that the movement is something that its being ...  Read More Mullā Ṣadrā, in a discussion like the relationship between the constant and the changing, insists on constancy of the change and says that the movement is something that its being changed is identical with constancy: because everything – whatever that may be – is of constancy, although its constancy be merely constancy in being changed. In other words, there is something constant in the changing things and the changing is constant in its own changing. Thus, the changing things are related to the constant from the very constant aspect. He sometimes considers this constancy as a kind of four–dimensionalism and does not regard this four–dimensionalism to be inconsistent with presentism. Now, this important problem appears that how much the paradoxical expressions such as “constancy of the change” and ‘combination of four–dimensionalism with presentism’ are acceptable. The main purpose of the essay is to critically study the very Ṣadrian version of constancy of the change in the constant–changing relation and similar discussions. We will see that Ṣadrian commentators have had different reactions to such expressions as constancy of the change: Some, like ʻAllāmah Ṭabāṭabāyī, have accepted it and some, like Muṭahharī and Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, have not. The criticism of Muṭahharī and Miṣbāḥ Yazdī, shortly speaking, is the claim that constancy of the change is abstract and mental property not external one and that it is conceptual not extensional. We will continue to criticize the evaluations of Muṭahharī and Miṣbāḥ Yazdī: if there is not some kind of constancy in the external world as the truth–maker, our mind cannot apply the concept of constancy about the external changings. Finally, we will focus on the logical structure of the discussion in our special critique of constancy of the change to show that Ṣadrian version of constancy of the change is not merely a paradox but arguably a real contradiction. The reason is that, if the logical structures of (A) “the changing in its own changing is constant (and not changing)” and (B) “the changing in its own changing is not constant (but is changing)” are new logical structures such as (C) “x in its own being x is not x” and (D) “x in its own being x is x”, then it is resulted that (B) “the changing in its own changing is changing (and not constant)” to be true and therefore a controdiction to be appeared: both (A) and its contradictory, (B), are true. So, there is something in the material world that is controdictorily both constant and changing – while such resolutions as the difference in aspect are not applicable in the case of this contradiction. But, if, on the contrary of Ṣadrian Philosophy, we consider constancy of the change merely as an external time permanence and does not confuse this time permanence with real constancy, there will not emerge the non–material constancy contradictorily from this intensity of the change.

---

• View Article
• PDF 1.09 M

Ḥakīm Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Lārī's Explanation of Avicenna's View on Motion An Analytical Introduction and the Editio Princeps of the Treatise on the Discussion of the Motion

Mohammad Javad Esmaeili

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 59-82

Abstract

  Ḥakīm Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Lārī (979/80 AH/ 1572 CE) was a 10th AH/16th Century AD philosopher and historian. His extensive travels across the Safavid realms in Iran, the Gurkan ...  Read More Ḥakīm Muṣliḥ al-Dīn Lārī (979/80 AH/ 1572 CE) was a 10th AH/16th Century AD philosopher and historian. His extensive travels across the Safavid realms in Iran, the Gurkan domains in India, and the Ottoman territories in Asia Minor provided him with a profound cross-cultural perspective, deeply influencing his philosophical thought. As for the Life of Ḥakīm Lārī, a paucity of extensive biographical information has confined contemporary research to a scant collection of extant writings. Born in the southern city of Lār in 890 AH/1510 CE, Lārī's contributions to philosophy, astronomy, and history are noteworthy. This cross-cultural experience profoundly impacted his philosophical thought, as evidenced in his writings. Lārī's intellectual formation was shaped by the teachings of Ghiyāth al-Dīn Manṣūr Dashtakī (948 AH/1541 CE), son of Sayyid Ṣadr-al-Dīn Dashtakī (903 AH/1498 CE), and Kamāl al-Dīn Lārī (10th Century AH/16th Century CE), a student of Jalāl al-Dīn Davānī.  One of Lārī's notable works, the The Paradigm of the Sciences (Unmūdhaj al-ʿulūm), has been identified in two complete manuscripts in two Turkish libraries. Additionally, three copies of an excerpt from this work, titled "on the Discussion of the Motion" (fī bahth al-ḥaraka), are preserved in libraries across Iran, Germany, and Turkey. His "on the Discussion of the Motion" is the twelfth part of the treatise The Paradigm of the Sciences, a comprehensive work encompassing both rational and traditional sciences, organized into twenty-one discussions. Lārī's critical approach in this work imbues it with enduring philosophical value. He engaged with the thoughts of prominent thinkers across the ages, including Aristotle (322 BCE), Fārābī (339 AH/ 950 CE), Avicenna (428 AH/1037 CE), Suhrawardī (587 AH/ 1191 CE), Qūshchī (878 AH/1474 CE), and Davānī (908 AH/ 1502 CE). In this work, Lārī establishes himself as a peer to Davānī through a philosophical dialogue with his criticisms. This work is concerned with a definition of motion, the elements of defining motion and the intimate relationship of motion to time. It examines the fluid nature of the present now (flowing now), the distinction between finite and infinite entities, and two meanings of motion: instantaneous (ḥaraka tawassuṭiyya) and continuous (ḥaraka qaṭ'iyya). It also explores a particular kind of motion in a category, including motion in quantity, condensation, and growth. The connectedness of the unit and the notion of a natural unit are carefully examined, as are the nature of a physical body, the singularity of a certain thing, and the notion of an individual entity. The methodology employed in editing the text adhered to the following principles: precedence of date, textual completeness, lexical and philosophical aspects, Modern Standard Arabic readability, Middle Arabic variants, and elimination of unnecessary orthographic differences. This approach ensured that the text's integrity was preserved while enhancing its accessibility to a modern audience.

---

• View Article
• PDF 2.43 M

The Theory of the Reverse Process and its Application in Explaining the Way of Observing and Knowing About Occult Matters by Ibn Sina and Sheykh Eshraq

Saeed Anvari

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 83-100

Abstract

  Ibn Sina considered the way of viewing non-material (rational) beings to have a reverse process of viewing material beings. After him, Sheikh Eshraq (Suhrawardi) also explained how ...  Read More Ibn Sina considered the way of viewing non-material (rational) beings to have a reverse process of viewing material beings. After him, Sheikh Eshraq (Suhrawardi) also explained how to observe the creatures of the imaginal world with the help of this process. Instead of the five external senses that send information to common sense, this information is transferred from the soul or the imagination in the opposite direction to common sense. The necessary condition for this is that the external and internal powers are not busy, and there is an opportunity for sensual perception to affect the brain and common sense. In this way, an unseen being is represented by the person. This process happens in two states: sleep and wakefulness. Those whose souls are strong or whose bodies are weak succeed in such an observation. Since sensual perception reaches a common sense through inner powers and imagination, sometimes imagination interferes, takes possession of it, and turns what the soul has observed into its likeness or opposite. In this case, we need an interpretation of the conditions and methods examined in this article. However, in some cases, what has been observed reaches the common sense without interference, and the person observes them. The criterion for such an observation is that closing the eyes does not prevent it from being seen. In some cases, this process requires an interpretation, and this article examines the conditions. Also, this process has various applications in Islamic philosophy. With its help, the method of observing and representing angels, jinn, and demons, as well as the method of inspiration and seeing a veridical dream, and some types of magic and knowledge of the occult have been explained. In this way, it is also possible to explain the observations and sensory perceptions and hear the sounds described by Sheikh Eshraq in the stages of treading a path of mystical conduct. The types of revelation that happen through seeing the angel of revelation and hearing his voice can also be explained in this way. In some patients, the origin of these observations is purely imaginary, and the person suffers from hallucinations and observes things that have no origin other than his brain. In this way, the delusions of some patients can also be explained. This article describes and criticizes the reverse process and its applications. It has been shown that Avicenna influences Suhrawardi in this discussion, and both philosophers have proposed similar applications for this theory, with the difference that Suhrawardi extended Avicenna's thesis, which was about rational beings, to the imaginal world.

---

• View Article
• PDF 867.4 K

Islamic philosophy and Mysticism and the Issue of the Development of Civilization and Culture

Shahram Pazouki

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 101-125

Abstract

  The issue of stagnation or lack of progress in Islamic culture and civilization and its causes is one of the main issues that modern Muslim intellectuals have addressed and elaborated ...  Read More The issue of stagnation or lack of progress in Islamic culture and civilization and its causes is one of the main issues that modern Muslim intellectuals have addressed and elaborated from various perspectives. Most of them believe that the main obstacle is Islamic philosophy(hekmat) and mysticism, which have hindered the progress of Islamic countries compared to the so-called Western countries. This research does not focus on the well-known factors such as scientific, social, political and geographical factors that are usually relevant for the development of civilization and culture. Rather, it investigates and analyzes this issue by arguing that the concepts of progress, civilization and culture are novel and modern concepts that are based on specific (modern) philosophical principles that originated and spread in Europe and have no precedent in any civilization and thought of non-European peoples, including Islam, even in the Christian Middle Ages. It is a novel initiative that was launched in the Western world history, and in essence, neither Islamic, Christian, nor Chinese or Indian wisdom and mysticism have obstructed its emergence. Contrary to what is claimed, in the pre-modern era, the source and basis of what is called culture and civilization in the modern era, for example in the Islamic world, were their wisdom and mysticism. To do this, the article first provides the historical background of the advocates of this opinion, who saw themselves as religious reformers or the so-called Islamic Protestants, such as Sayyed Jamaluddin Asadabadi. It also explains the history of the main concepts of this opinion, namely civilization, culture and progress, in the modern Western thought and their novelty in the non-modern thought and among the predecessors. It deals with the teachings of the great mystic Rumi as the one who is wrongly labeled as an opponent of science.The article also gives some examples of how the views of two Muslim philosophers, one from the west, Ibn Rushd, and the other from the east, Mirfenderski, could have contributed to the emergence of modern science and technology among Muslims, but they did not. The study concludes that this opinion and judgment is fundamentally flawed and is mainly due to the lack of comprehension of the foundations and principles of modern thought and secondly, Islamic philosophy and mysticism.

---

• View Article
• PDF 705.47 K

The Truth and Reality in Peirce’s and James’s Pragmatism

Atieh Zandieh

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 127-145

Abstract

  The truth and reality are two fundamental philosophical concepts upon which pragmatists have specific and important discussions. This paper compares Peirce’s and James’s ...  Read More The truth and reality are two fundamental philosophical concepts upon which pragmatists have specific and important discussions. This paper compares Peirce’s and James’s ideas – both of which have proposed theories that challenge traditional metaphysics - on these two fundamental concepts in order to answer two questions of (1) why James has a wider reputation, his thoughts are more pursued, and is also called the founder of pragmatism, while Peirce is the founder of Pragmatism; and (2) whether the two philosophers’ pragmatism in the theory of reality and truth has been able to free itself from metaphysical philosophy? To answer these questions, this paper addresses these two philosophers’ point of views toward the theory of the truth. Although, it seems that the two concepts of truth and reality have clear meanings, there is a difference of opinion among pragmatist philosophers. Therefore, investigating the meaning, types, criteria, and position of the truth and reality in pragmatism reflects these philosophers’ opinions on these two concepts and also, answers the research questions of this paper. To answer the research questions, this paper applied a qualitative method, used a desk study, reviewed previous studies on relevant topics, and applied analytical arguments and interpretations. This paper shows that pragmatism is based on the pragmatic maxim that Peirce wrote and James also accepted. The overall criterion of this maxim is the practical impact that are reflected in propositions, believes, and notions to evaluate their practical consequences. In their views, although there are some literal dissimilarities between different believes, they have the same practical impact and address the same matter. Thus, they made a link between the theory and practice.  However, their views on traditional metaphysics make a distinction between these two philosophers. Peirce considers the pragmatic maxim as a logical principle, connects it to the theory of meaning, and offers different criteria - such as correspodence, compatibility, coherence, and consensus of scientific community – for evaluating the truth. Therefore, he gives a social character to the truth and takes the traditional metaphysics away from his philosophy. James, however, ties it with the theory of the truth that make it incompatible with the traditional metaphysics and Pierce’s criteria. These characteristics put James’ pragmatism at the top of the later pragmatist thoughts. In addition, this article explains that although both, Peirce and James, proposed new and effective views on the truth and reality and relations between them and they challenged some of the principles of metaphysical philosophy. Therefore, they did not think outside the framework of metaphysical thinking, could not withdraw this position, and did not propose totally novel ideas.

---

• View Article
• PDF 703.92 K

Analysis of categorial intuition in Husserl's Logical Investigations

Seyyed Mohammad Taqi Shakeri

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 147-165

Abstract

  Phenomenologists enumerate the four main topics of Husserl's phenomenology and discuss them in detail: phenomenology, categorical intuition, the meaning of the a priori, the phenomenological ...  Read More Phenomenologists enumerate the four main topics of Husserl's phenomenology and discuss them in detail: phenomenology, categorical intuition, the meaning of the a priori, the phenomenological principle. The importance of categorical intuition shows itself in the link between phenomenology and ontology. The first aspect in the importance of categorical intuition is related to the interpretation of truth in phenomenology. The interpretation of truth in this point of view is close to the view of the Greeks, who attached real value even to simple perception. Another aspect of the importance of discussing categorical intuition is to emphasize that when expressing sensory perception and passing judgment,  there are things that cannot be perceived; for example, in the sentence "This table is blue", we see neither "this" nor "is". The third aspect of the importance of categorical intuitions is that these intuitions constitute the new perceived objectivity; That is, they make simple objects more original. The perceived objectivity that manifests itself in such a categorical intuition is itself a mode of being objective; so, with the discovery of categorical intuition, the concept of objectivity expanded and with the phenomenological research, the way of research that the former ontology was looking for is obtained. There is no ontology parallel to phenomenology; rather, ontology is not a science except phenomenology. In Husserl's opinion, any action that fills the presentation and confirms itself is called "perception"; and every fulfilling act is called "intuition"; and "object" refers to any kind of intentional correlate. Husserl discusses "categorial intuition" in the sixth investigation of Logical Investigations. In categorial intuition, we are dealing with sensory perceptions with the surplus, which is added to a predicative assertion at the stage of transferring sensory perception. The problem of the present article is to explain the position of categorial intuition and its relationship with perception from Husserl's point of view in his Logical Investigations. The necessity and importance of this issue is such that it can be considered as the foundation of phenomenology and any future knowledge theory, and even Heidegger considered it one of the four main issues of Husserl's phenomenology. The discussion begins with an explanation of the difference between "perception", "intuition", "object" and "fulfillment". Then, using the analytical-descriptive method, the relationship of categorial intuition with the categorial elements of thinking, the contrast between simple and categorial acts, the stages of acts in synthetic categorical intuition, the important role of sensation in categorial intuition, and eidetic intuition will be investigated next to synthetic categorial intuition. One of the achievements of this article is the exposition of the three stages of synthetic categorial intuitions: simple perception of the whole, subdividing perceptions, and categorial synthetic intention. The innovation of this article is that, according to Husserl, we have intellectual and categorial intuition just as we have intuition of sensory objects. 

---

• View Article
• PDF 669.69 K

Examining the Effect of the Theory of Gradation of Being on the View of Totalism in Mulla Sadra's Thought

Maryam Abbasi kashkooli; AbodlAli Shokr

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 167-183

Abstract

  In contrast to other theories, the theory of holistic view has not been properly considered in Islamic philosophy, especially transcendental wisdom. The ideas about the existence of ...  Read More In contrast to other theories, the theory of holistic view has not been properly considered in Islamic philosophy, especially transcendental wisdom. The ideas about the existence of the whole or the total as something derived from individuals, in order to confirm or reject its real existence, are implicitly acceptable during some issues that arise in the Supreme Wisdom and according to their requirements. Exploring these related theories gives two conflicting positions of Mulla Sadra's theory about the being of the "whole": Some expressions clearly express the negation of the existence of the whole, Mulla Sadra, in the position of criticizing Ibn Sina's proofs of the falsification of sequence and Suhrodi's proof of necessity, which take the existence of the whole as the premise of their proof, and also proofs It runs away from the plateau that has been set up to prove the existence of the whole and emphasizes that nothing but unity exists outside, and multiplicity is not compatible with existence. and others implicitly or explicitly acknowledge its existence. some other expressions of Mulla Sadra, contrary to the above opinion, are in line with the acceptance of the external existence of the whole; That is, his expressions have provided a platform for description and interpretation dependent on the external existence of the whole, each of which is examined in detail.  The present article aims to use analytical-critical method, after considering Mulla Sadra's conflicting expressions in this regard, by paying attention to the coordinates of the principle of gradation of being, to criticize her point of view and to verify the theory of holism. The result of the research shows that the belief in the existence of the whole is one of the essentials of the principle of gradation of being. Longitudinal and latitudinal multiplicity that exists with regard to the three basic components of the principle of suspicion; That is, unity, multiplicity and objectivity of both can be explained, it shows the true existence of the whole as certain and its negation and the exclusivity of the existence of the whole in the existence of its individuals is incompatible with the coordinates of existence. The whole is a mental validity that is considered by differentiating and considering the plurality of people and not the plurality of gradation, and in this mental and epistemological consideration, ontological explanations, including gradation, do not interfere much. If someone believes in the originality of the essence or the difference of existence in the external objective truth or has a special doubt or special gradation, can credit all of them. This mental validity does not have an objective realization, and this is different from plurality or unity.

---

• View Article
• PDF 549.28 K

Review and Comparative Study of Nietzsche's and Dilthey's Thinking in Relation to History

Hassan Gheybipour; Ali Karbasizadeh; Mohammad Safian

Volume 21, Issue 1 , September 2023, , Pages 185-202

Abstract

  History, under the influence of Hegel's thoughts in the 19th century, took a high place. In the following, some historians with a positivist way of thinking proposed the idea of scientific ...  Read More History, under the influence of Hegel's thoughts in the 19th century, took a high place. In the following, some historians with a positivist way of thinking proposed the idea of scientific historiography. Based on that, history becomes a definite science and, like natural sciences, it is separated from the researcher's mentalities. The problem starts from here that German historicism, believing in the normative force of history, emphasized the importance that the historian should provide a direction for society and culture by discovering the pure facts and revealing their historical meaning.Based on this idea of history, the social and cultural function of philosophy was challenged. In this chaotic situation that made philosophy face the crisis of identity, Nietzsche's and Dilthey's projects, i.e. the broad and diverse movement of "philosophy of life," became the driving force of the renewal of philosophy in the 19th century.Nietzsche and Dilthey agreed on the issue that comprehensive historiography in its understanding of human beings has created the problem of relativism, which causes "dissolution" and "pessimism" and cannot predict the future of human culture. Therefore, they called for a new philosophy that should reveal the purpose of human culture and support its progress towards reaching its goal. Although they chose a similar path to confirm the cultural authority of philosophy against the results of historical criticism, they arrived at a completely different solution.Nietzsche calls the antidotes against historicism "supra-historical", which includes the art of forgetting history and living in an enclosed and determined horizon; It means having the talent to know when to sense history and when to leave it aside.In his opinion, both of these methods are equally necessary for the health of a person, the health of a nation and culture. Dilthey, unlike Nietzsche, considers history to be an antidote and a cure for the failures of the philosophy of life: If history creates a wound, it must also heal it. 

---

• View Article
• PDF 604.91 K