Philosophy

The possibility or impossibility of linguistic incommensurability in comparative researches

Hasan Ahmadizade

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 15 April 2025

Abstract

  Researchers in comparative studies believe that the most challenging obstacle facing scholars in this field is, first and foremost, the possibility or impossibility of comparability ...  Read More Researchers in comparative studies believe that the most challenging obstacle facing scholars in this field is, first and foremost, the possibility or impossibility of comparability among different traditions, cultures, and schools of thought. This difficulty is particularly evident in the realm of comparative research in philosophy and theology. Philosophers who have been concerned with comparative explorations in the texts and cultures of ancient philosophical traditions have found themselves confronted with a multitude of terms and vocabulary for which finding equivalents has proven to be a very challenging task. In this essay, by referring to three types of incommensurability—fundamental, evaluative, and linguistic—we will focus on two general approaches regarding the possibility or impossibility of linguistic incommensurability. On one hand, we will reference the views of individuals like Davidson, who defend the comparability and the rejection of incommensurability among different traditions and cultures against those like MacIntyre. On the other hand, we will critique and evaluate these two general approaches. In the issue of linguistic incommensurability, the emphasis is on whether, given the different terms, languages, contexts, and times in which these arise in various cultures, it is still possible to compare the cultures, traditions, and schools of thought that emerge from them.

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The Other and epistemic confrontations: a comparative study of the views of Ibn Arabi and Paul Feyerabend

Jalal Abdollahi; Hamedeh Rastaei

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 15 April 2025

Abstract

  The purpose of this article is to compare the approach of Ibn Arabi and Feyerabend in facing the "other" and epistemic confrontations. Despite the background and historical ...  Read More The purpose of this article is to compare the approach of Ibn Arabi and Feyerabend in facing the "other" and epistemic confrontations. Despite the background and historical differences of these two thinkers, both of them consider "the other" and epistemic confrontations as an opportunity to upgrade and elevate the epistemological dimensions of a person. Ibn Arabi's and Fayraband's approach to the system of existence is closely related to their view in the field of epistemology. The encounter of these two thinkers with "the other" and different opinions is rooted in their ontological system. In Ibn Arabi's ontological system, the difference between beings is due to the difference between divine names. This existential and ontological difference also finds its way to the field of knowledge and causes a plurality of opinions and ideas. From Feyerabend's point of view, existence is a complex and rich thing, and the possibility of understanding its truth is completely ruled out. In the eyes of both, the possibility of being able to grasp the whole truth from a specific point of view is ruled out. Instead of recommending the elimination of the "other", they recognize multiple opinions and refer to epistemological confrontations as an opportunity to strengthen views and gain a deeper understanding of the truth.

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The Phenomenological Concept and Function of Temporal Intuition of Essence in Descartes and Husserl

Abdolreza safari

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 20 April 2025

Abstract

  Based on the descriptive-analytical method, this article focuses on the phenomenological function of intuition of essence in Descartes and Husserl. Although the author introduces intuition ...  Read More Based on the descriptive-analytical method, this article focuses on the phenomenological function of intuition of essence in Descartes and Husserl. Although the author introduces intuition as a common methodological process for them, he observes clear differences between them. In the Rules of Guidance of the Mind, for Descartes, intuition is a perception arising from the light of pure reason, whose immediacy and delicacy, contrary to temporal inference, leave no room for skepticism and can be an effective expression for pure rationalism, through which it suspends the authority of imagination and senses. By emphasizing the delicacy and inherent obviousness of intuition, firstly, the truth of temporal inference becomes dependent on intuition. Secondly, with the help of intuition, one can go beyond the temporal "that" and pass through perceptual pointlessness in order to ensure the continuity of intuitive certainty.Thirdly, by developing the possibilities of intuition, he achieves the intuitive perception of "relations".However, for Husserl in Cartesian Meditation, the structure of intuition, which is a kind of intellectual journey, It is introduced as merely a signifier, not a mode of representation, it is a temporal matter that begins with the pure subject. But it relies on the intentional aspect, that is, on the solidarity of the pure subject with its objects, and the pure subject does not exist. Husserl achieved important achievements by making this change in the structure of intuition. First, he achieved the obviousness and temporality of intuition by relying on the transcendental subject, which is the existential condition of objects.

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A Rereading of Plato's and Aristotle's Educational Philosophies in Light of Davidson's Concept of the "Relational Self"

Kamrun Shahbazi; Mohammad Hassan Karimi; Babak Shamshiri; Amin Izad panah

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 18 May 2025

Abstract

  To illustrate the distinct and nuanced educational system that arises from a relational perspective ‎on the concept of "self." ‎This article attempts to first, analyze ...  Read More To illustrate the distinct and nuanced educational system that arises from a relational perspective ‎on the concept of "self." ‎This article attempts to first, analyze Davidson's concept of "self" and then, by introducing Plato's and Aristotle's ideas about the concept of "self", attempt to express their educational system by comparing them with the concept of "relational self".Perhaps the most notable instance of the definition of the "relational self"is Davidson's image of it.This "relational self" possesses two important characteristics: relation with otherness and relation with the world. According to this definition, Plato's idea of the "self" stands in opposition to the "relational self" because of his dualism.Aristotle elucidates to the concept of the "relational self" by presenting the theory of hylomorphism. However, due to its standard reading, he cannot fully meet the criteria for a relational definition of "self".The outcome of this definition of the relationality of "self" is an enhanced focus on the role of the “other,” the “world.” The distinctive identity of individuals and educational institutions is shaped not by top-down directives from the ministry, but by the relationships among students, peers, and teachers, as well as the relations between schools and other institutions. Physical education is regarded as essential as the cultivation of mental capacities. Davidson's holistic concept of “self” emphasizes the integration of descriptive and normative knowledge, and also making no distinction between natural and social sciences. Educational policy, curriculum, and the necessary rationality and agency for implementing changes all attain a relational status and become bottom-up.

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Plato's Parmenides: Logical Groundwork of Methexis in the Dialectic of One and Many

Amir Samsami

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 18 May 2025

Abstract

  The Parmenides is not fundamentally intended to reject, revise, or even correct the dogmatic presuppositions regarding the hypothesis of Ideas. Rather, its aim is to bring those presuppositions ...  Read More The Parmenides is not fundamentally intended to reject, revise, or even correct the dogmatic presuppositions regarding the hypothesis of Ideas. Rather, its aim is to bring those presuppositions closer to the level of true knowledge by means of a logical-conceptual grounding. On this basis, the author seeks in this paper to demonstrate that the problem of participation (methexis), which constitutes the focal point of the criticisms directed at the doctrine of Ideas in the first part of the Parmenides, finds its logical foundation in light of the dialectical examination of the hypothesis of the One in the second part of the dialogue. For the problem of the relation between the One and the Many is itself the general and logical form of the relation between the Form and the particulars that participate in it. Accordingly, we will examine how Plato, by showing the unintelligibility and contradictory nature of the One’s pure in-itselfness and absolute separation from the many particulars under its universality, deploys the dialectic of the One and the Many as a means of revealing the necessity of inner relationality within the concept of the One itself. Consequently, it is on this basis that a conceptually and logically defensible account of the presence (parousia) of the Idea in particulars, as well as the participation (methexis) of particulars in the Idea, can be achieved—and this may be regarded as Plato’s clear and determinate position in response to the criticisms levelled against the ambiguity of participation in the doctrine of Ideas.

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Heidegger's approach to proving the external world based on his interpretation of Aristotle's φύσις

Husain Azadmanjiri; Manjid Mollayousefi; Mohammad Hasan Heidari

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 1-23

Abstract

  Proving the external world is one of the issues that have been a concern of Heidegger since the beginning of his career. Throughout the course of his philosophical thought, Heidegger ...  Read More Proving the external world is one of the issues that have been a concern of Heidegger since the beginning of his career. Throughout the course of his philosophical thought, Heidegger repeatedly attempts to recover the early Greek pre-Socratic experience of existence as φύσις (phosis). By tracing the roots of the words φύσις and nature, he rejects the translation of φύσις to nature and states that this translation became the reason for the deviation of philosophy and then science, as a result of which, in Kant's philosophy, the need to prove the external world was felt. Therefore, he tried to distance himself from scientism and the scientific view, and in referring to Greek thought, he showed that the lack of proof of the external world is not due to the neglect of Greek philosophers, but lies in their way of looking at the relationship between man and the world. To solve these problems, referring to Aristotle's philosophy, he interprets terms such as φύσις, επαγωγης, αιτια, ἀρχή, etc. In his opinion, for Aristotle, φύσις is the Being in itself and other terms such as αιτια, ἀρχή, and especially οὐσία should be redefined and interpreted in this regard. By presenting this interpretation, he shows that the relationship between man and Being is deeper than the need to prove Being. Being manifests before beings and before them for humans, and humans are able to exist through it.

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Critical Assessment of the Nature of Moral Propositions from the Perspective of the Mohaqiq Isfahani

Hossein Ahmadi

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 25-43

Abstract

  Ethical propositions such as "justice is necessary" are considered “mashhurat” (well-known or commonly accepted beliefs), which are propositions that gain general acceptance ...  Read More Ethical propositions such as "justice is necessary" are considered “mashhurat” (well-known or commonly accepted beliefs), which are propositions that gain general acceptance due to universal or specific group endorsement. Mohaqiq Isfahani deems their reality solely as constructs of rational individuals, according to the strict definition of “mashhurat”. Therefore, he regards ethical propositions as conventional. Furthermore, he sees a division between “mashhurat” and axioms; since he believes only axioms reveal true reality, from his perspective, “mashhurat”, which are distinct from axioms, possess no reality beyond the constructs of rational people, thus negating their reality. This research aims not only to elucidate the nature of ethical propositions from the perspective of Mohaqiq Isfahani and identify key factors influencing his viewpoint, but also to criticize the notion that “mashhurat” are distinct from illusions. Therefore, it seems incorrect to assert that “mashhurat” and axioms are separate categories; rather, foundational proofs should be divided in terms of the method of knowledge into “mashhurat” and illusions, and in terms of the value of knowledge into axioms and assumptions. Additionally, defining specific “mashhurat” as having no reality other than the constructs of rational individuals is an innovation of the Isfahani scholar. However, in the correct view, specific “mashhurat” should only be considered regarding their method of understanding, and the possibility of them having reality should not be dismissed.

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Infinity in Descartes' Philosophy

Ali Ardeshir Larijani

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 45-59

Abstract

  Generally, Descartes is considered a philosopher who played a significant role in the foundation of modern philosophy and is also regarded as the one who paved the way for scientific ...  Read More Generally, Descartes is considered a philosopher who played a significant role in the foundation of modern philosophy and is also regarded as the one who paved the way for scientific thinking. Among Descartes' views, his attention to mathematics as a science that entirely contains "certain propositions" is prominent. This attention made him believe in the theory of the unity of sciences with mathematical characteristics. From Descartes' point of view, "measurability," "order," and " deductive method" are the main features of mathematics. He used the term "universal mathematics" for all sciences that benefit from those characteristics. Among his opinions, Descartes' understanding of "infinity" is also different from most scholastic philosophers. He considered infinity as a positive concept that exists in humans and contrasts with the conventional perception; he believed that it is possible to have a perception of the finite from the rejection of the infinite. However, this attitude has faced many challenges up to now. In this article, we will investigate Descartes' theory of infinity and demonstrate that his work was a good start but encompassed theoretical ambiguities that later have been clarified by mathematicians.

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Rorty and "Cartesian Anxiety" The Critical Capacity of Richard Rorty’s Socio-Political Perspective

Iman Rahim Nasirian; Abdurrazzaq Hesamifar

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 61-81

Abstract

  According to Rorty's point of view, there is no authority called Truth to measure social values; established practices in society are not based on Truth but are dynamic products of ...  Read More According to Rorty's point of view, there is no authority called Truth to measure social values; established practices in society are not based on Truth but are dynamic products of free conversation, consensus, and agreement among members of society. Rorty's hope that it is possible to provide a criterion for measuring social values without appealing to the truth and solely through free-floating conversation has provoked many criticisms. The most central part of these criticisms, in line with what Richard Bernstein calls "Cartesian anxiety," refers to the concern that if there is no Truth, everything is lawful! In other words, for many critics, Rorty's standpoint against truth, his denial of the fixed foundations of belief and social obligations, inevitably means that we will have no reliable criteria by which to criticize the current beliefs and practices of society. Each argues differently that Rorty's view deprives society of the critical capacity to evaluate social values. In this article, with an analytical approach, we examine Rorty's point of view in the framework of this critical line. We aim to demonstrate that these criticisms are based on a misunderstanding and an incoherent reading of Rorty's views. According to the conclusion of this research, his pragmatism not only does not mean denying the possibility of criticizing the current practices of society, but it is an innovative attempt to provide a plan of non-truth-centered critical constructs designed, in line with post-modern thought to escape it from Cartesian anxiety.

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Insights from Social Epistemology for Thinking about the Demarcation Problem

Zahra Zargar

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 83-109

Abstract

  The problem of diagnosing science from pseudoscience- widely known as the Demarcation Problem- has both theoretical and practical significance in philosophy of science. While for decades ...  Read More The problem of diagnosing science from pseudoscience- widely known as the Demarcation Problem- has both theoretical and practical significance in philosophy of science. While for decades philosophers have tried to provide a satisfying solution to this problem, still there is no agreed answer to the question. The difficulties of demarcating science from pseudoscience can be divided into two main categories: challenges for defining a demarcating criterion, and challenges for applying the criterion to the occurred cases. Whereas most of the debates are centered around the first category, this paper focuses on one problem from the second one. Specification of the authority who possesses the necessary competence and legitimacy to discern science from pseudoscience is a difficulty for the application of demarcating criteria. It seems that the most complicated cases for this problem are those in which defenders of the suspected pseudoscience are themselves members of a scientific society. These cases are examples of a situation called “experts’ disagreement” in social epistemology. In this paper, I try to utilize insights from social epistemology about experts’ disagreement and complement them with the idea of “cognitive labor division” to overcome the challenge of finding the competent authority for identifying science from pseudoscience. 

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The Contrast of Form with Aesthetic Ideas in the Critique of Judgment

ali salmani

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 111-131

Abstract

  Form is one of the challenging terms in the Kant's Critique of Judgment. In his Critique of Pure Reason, he discusses in the transcendental aesthetics of form in relation to a priori ...  Read More Form is one of the challenging terms in the Kant's Critique of Judgment. In his Critique of Pure Reason, he discusses in the transcendental aesthetics of form in relation to a priori conditions of intuition, i.e. time and place. In fact, the temporal and spatial arrangement of sensory intuitions is called form. In Critique of Judgment, Kant considers form to be the most important beautifying factor in aesthetic judgment and introduces terms such as design and composition as its synonyms. It is quite clear that the form presented in the third minute is the same form presented in the transcendental aesthetics in the Critique of Pure Reason. On the other hand, in Kant's sudden turn under the discussion of genius and beautiful art, the content of artistic works or aesthetic ideas becomes more important. In this way, a kind of inconsistency can be seen in the issues raised in the Critique of Judgment. Some commentators believe that a kind of change of perspective is observed in Kant's aesthetics due to the failure to justify the universal validity of the aesthetic judgment. On the other hand, some other commentators believe that by presenting a new and comprehensive definition of form in Kant's aesthetics, it is possible to reconcile the two apparently incompatible parts of Kant's Critique of Judgment. After examining the commentaries, it was found that Alison's view is more justified compared to other views. According to Allison, the form is the arrangement of sensible data in such a way as to create a free harmony of imagination and understanding.

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State as a Work of Art (Schiller's Aesthetic Point of View in Relation to Romanticism)

sayed Hamid Talebzadeh; hasan mehrnia; Fatemeh Delavari Parizi

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 133-156

Abstract

  The discussion about the state has been a serious and challenging topic throughout human life, especially in the modern era. Therefore, at a time when this discussion has had many ups ...  Read More The discussion about the state has been a serious and challenging topic throughout human life, especially in the modern era. Therefore, at a time when this discussion has had many ups and downs in Europe, Schiller, under the influence of Kant, proposed the theory of "aesthetic state" and among competing theories and in opposition to what modernity has prepared for man and the new world, presenting a different point of view suits the taste of the times. In this article, an attempt has been made to systematically explain the place of this debate in Kant's thought, and after presenting the basics of his aesthetic theory, Schiller's point of view on the aesthetic state and its similarities and differences with Kant's thought have been evaluated. For this purpose, both Schiller's philosophical works have been referred to and his dramatic works have been discussed. In the continuation of the article, the influence of this idea on the thinkers of the Romantic era and the formation of the idea of ​​the poetic state and the organic state and its development process have been discussed. Finally, while comparing the difference between the views of Kant and Hegel in the discussion of culture and the influence of this view in the definition of the state, the difference between the state as a work of art, as proposed by Schiller, and Hegel's organic state and how they influence the field of culture, society and politics Assessment has been made. 

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Is Socrates a Prophet? (In Light of the Views of His Contemporaries and the Main Commentators)

Hossein Ghaffari; Parham Elyasi Boroujeni

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 157-190

Abstract

  Everybody acknowledges the importance of Socrates’ role and influence on the history of philosophy, as well as on the culture of humanity. He is also considered to be the first ...  Read More Everybody acknowledges the importance of Socrates’ role and influence on the history of philosophy, as well as on the culture of humanity. He is also considered to be the first martyr of virtue and wisdom in human history. In spite of this, even though most Western commentators recognize the elevated meanings and high level of Socratic wisdom, they refuse to consider it to have a supra-human source and to be divine prophet. In this article and through the analysis of Socrates’ words and speeches, which can be found in authentic sources such as some of Plato’s writings, the author aims to prove the truth of Socrates’ claim according to which he had the gift of prophecy. By putting together rational proofs and historical clues from his life, we will underline the veracity of such a claim. A part of the article will be dedicated to underlining the fact that our reasoning is based on authentic and historical references of Socrates’ speeches, which are mainly mentioned in Plato’s Apology. By quoting the main and most important commentators’ views in this field, we will therefore endeavor to show that there is a sort of general consensus among most commentators to consider this treatise to be an historical document. The importance as well as main outcome of this article is that if we accept this theory, the general outlook of the history of philosophy will change radically. In addition, the claim that wisdom has a divine source, which is mentioned repeatedly in the content of divine wise men’s words and in some Islamic traditions, will be confirmed. Moreover, the link between spiritual truths and human reasoning will be corroborated and underlined.

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Mulla Sadra and the Issue of Human Authorities in the Arc of Descent

ali karimiyan

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 191-211

Abstract

  Although it is difficult to reach the definitive opinion of Mulla Sadra in the field of anthropology, and sometimes one has to reach the "judgments" of his point of view from among ...  Read More Although it is difficult to reach the definitive opinion of Mulla Sadra in the field of anthropology, and sometimes one has to reach the "judgments" of his point of view from among theological "similarities", there is no doubt that he has considered "corresponding" authorities for man both in the arc of descent and in the arc of ascent. with the difference that its "arc of descent" has an ontological aspect and its "arc of ascent" has an epistemological aspect. However, the purpose of this article is only to discover his definite point of view regarding "human positions in the arc of descent". Therefore, in the first step, an attempt has been made to explain the difference between "manifestation" and "Incarnation" in addition to a basic discussion, and then to obtain a correct understanding of the degrees of manifestation of Hazrat Haqq from Mulla Sadra's point of view. The findings of this article are proof of the fact that Mulla Sadra, according to principles such as "Pantheism", "simplicity of existence" and "Preception of the unity in multiplicity", has not only assigned four dimensions to Samadi's existence in the arc of descent. Rather, corresponding to that, for the type of human (or great man) as a manifestation of the manifestations of the Prophet Haqq, he has achieved the four statuses of "theological man", "Constraint and The all-mighty man", "regal man" and "property man", and he considered the partial soul of each person and his partial body to be respectively related to the two areas of "regal man" and "property man" of the great man.

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Analysis of Dialectical Components of Plato and Hegel in Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics

Asghar vaezi; Parvin Izadi

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 213-241

Abstract

  Dialectic as a method in philosophical thought and reasoning plays a pivotal role in the philosophies of Plato and Hegel. Plato, particularly in dialogues such as Republic and Sophist, ...  Read More Dialectic as a method in philosophical thought and reasoning plays a pivotal role in the philosophies of Plato and Hegel. Plato, particularly in dialogues such as Republic and Sophist, introduces dialectic as a pathway to truth, laying the foundation that was later developed by Hegel. In Plato’s philosophy, ideas (Forms) have meaningful and logical connections with one another, and through mutual and dialectical examination, a deeper understanding of truth can be achieved. However, Hegel views dialectic as a historical and philosophical process that advances through contradictions (thesis and antithesis) and their resolution (synthesis), continuously elevating awareness and cognition to higher levels, ultimately culminating in the realization of Absolute Spirit. Hans-Georg Gadamer, influenced by these two philosophers, endeavors in his seminal work Truth and Method to redefine dialectic within the framework of philosophical hermeneutics. Gadamer, emphasizing historicity and language as essential components of understanding, regards dialectic not only as a fundamental element in attaining truth but also as an inseparable factor in any interpretation of texts and historical events. This article examines the impact of dialectical elements from Plato and Hegel on Gadamer's hermeneutical theory. Using an analytical-comparative approach, it demonstrates how Gadamer integrates the dialectical concepts of Plato and Hegel with his hermeneutical principles, creating an innovative framework that emphasizes historicity and dialogue for understanding and interpretation in the humanities.

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The Relationship Between Self-Consciousness and Consciousness of External World, Concerning the New Approaches in Philosophy of Mind and Cognitive Sciences

Fatemeh Abbasi; Hossein Zamaniha

Volume 22, Issue 2 , March 2025, , Pages 243-264

Abstract

  Nowadays, discussion about self-consciousness as one of the fundamental kinds of consciousness, has received special attention especially in the field of philosophy of mind and cognitive ...  Read More Nowadays, discussion about self-consciousness as one of the fundamental kinds of consciousness, has received special attention especially in the field of philosophy of mind and cognitive sciences. The discussion about self-consciousness is the axis around which several questions have been emerged. One of the most important of these questions is whether self-consciousness precedes other-consciousness[1] (consciousness of other beings and humans in the external world), or self-consciousness is something that is formed and evolves implicitly along with our consciousness of other beings.  In response to this question two opposing views has emerged. One of them is a view which believes that self-consciousness is an innate characteristic which accompanies human being from his birth without any intermediary. This view is usually referred to as the traditional (Cartesian) view. The other is a view that is popular today in the field of cognitive science and philosophy of mind, based on which self-awareness is an acquired characteristic that expands and evolves through communication with the world and other humans. Avicenna and Descartes are among the founders and proponents of the first view and Kriegel, Baker, Damasio and Rochat are among the most important proponents of the second view. One of the most important criticisms of the first view, that is, the priority of self-consciousness over other kinds of consciousness namely consciousness of external world and others, is the incompatibility of this view with empirical evidence and the lack of attention to the different levels of self-awareness and its evolution. And one of the most important criticisms of the second view is the ambiguity in the ontological foundations of this view, including the ambiguity in the nature and truth of "self" as well as the lack of philosophical foundations for the explanation of the evolution of the truth of "self" and, consequently, self-consciousness. 1. In this paper we use the term other-consciousness in contrast to self-consciousness for emphasizing on our consciousness of other beings and humans in the external world.

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A Hermeneutic Analysis of Mencius'Philosophizing about Politics

ali aqajani

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 1-27

Abstract

  Mencius is one of the most important master philosophers in the Chinese paradigm and the Confucian tradition, and the article analyzes his philosophizing about politics based on Skinner's ...  Read More Mencius is one of the most important master philosophers in the Chinese paradigm and the Confucian tradition, and the article analyzes his philosophizing about politics based on Skinner's hermeneutic method. He is both an interpreter of Confucius and an independent theorist and philosopher in the fields of society. Based on this, in response to the question of what is the political philosophizing of Mencius, the hypothesis of the article considers four hermeneutic processes and considering the influence of mental contexts on the one hand and objective contexts on the other hand, the conventional norms of Mencius' time, including those in favor and against takes into account The favorable norms are in the Confucian school, and the traditional opposing norms are crystallized in Taoist, Mohist and legalist political philosophy. Then, the article imagines and analyzes Mencius' occupations in those norms and observes and expresses Mencius's political philosophizing through it. Based on this process, his affirmative and negative possessions in the conventional norms can be seen in the promise of the legitimacy of the two bases of heaven and earth, the right of revolution, the fusion of ethics and politics, the utopia based on the rule of Hakim-Shahriar, and an educated, virtuous and prosperous nation. Worldly and spiritual progress, meritocracy, political and social justice and peace are received. 

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The Fundamental Place of Metaphor in Philosophy Reflected upon by Different Meanings of “Radical Metaphor” in Cassirer's Philosophy

vahid ahmadi; Mohammadreza Beheshti

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 29-51

Abstract

  In first part of this article, we ask after historical and philosophical underground of metaphor. This underground is accentuated when we set the stage for a contrast. This contrast ...  Read More In first part of this article, we ask after historical and philosophical underground of metaphor. This underground is accentuated when we set the stage for a contrast. This contrast come to the fore as we notice the concordance between philosophy and metaphor-construction in Aristoteles and the discordance between Critical philosophy and Surrealism. Radical metaphor tries to resolve this discordance. Cassirer put metaphysics, metaphoric and metabasis together. Metaphors that are made through committing metabasis are very conditions of theoretical-conceptual thinking and make this possible. Metabasis that’s come from one of the Aristotle's prohibitions, means jumping from one genus to another one. So, we run through this thesis with the help of our Ariadne's thread, say, Leibniz's principle:  Natura non facit saltus. Classical Aristotelian metaphors are of analogical nature and meet with the Leibnizian principle. But surrealism brings about metaphors that transgress this Leibniz's principle. Cassirer resolve the problem with relocating Kopernikanische Drehung in his philosophy of culture. Language creates radical metaphors. Jumping from part to whole is the very basement that makes possible grasping the world in an integral, aesthetical view, no matter this view may distorts the reality because this view is of innate standard. We distinguish between to meaning of Radical metaphor and proceed: Radical metaphor as fundamental metaphor and Radical metaphor as radically different metaphor.

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A Critique of Proving the Substantial Movement by Means of Subordination, Affair (Shaʾn) and Causality

Mahdi Assadi

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 53-78

Abstract

  Mullā Ṣadrā’s most famous reason to prove the substantial movement (al-ḥarakat al-juharīyyah) is the one that persists in the existence of a special relation between the ...  Read More Mullā Ṣadrā’s most famous reason to prove the substantial movement (al-ḥarakat al-juharīyyah) is the one that persists in the existence of a special relation between the accident and the substance and is explained by such expressions as the accident’s being subordinate (tābiʿīyyah) to, caused by, inseparable from, and an affair (shaʾn) of the substance: since the accidents are subordinate to the substance, so they must be subordinate to it in their movement too. Thus, the substance moves a fortiori. Such proofs are comprehensively evaluated and criticized in this paper. According to the substantial rest critique, the accidental rest too is evidence of the substantial rest and the substance must contradictorily be both moving and in rest. In addition, since all material substances are not proved to actually move, the universal substantial movements cannot be proved. In the not being causal relation between the substance and the accident critique, the claim that the accident and the accidental movement are effects, affairs and existence manners of the substance is criticized by means of several proofs and counterexamples. Again, the critique of the existence unity in the essence and its accidents questions the movement of the substance existence to be proved. In proving the substantial movement by means of the subordination and of the relativeness of movement critique, it is shown that Ṣadrā has incorrectly generalized the rule that the correlatives are equal counterparts (mutakāfiʾān). So, the difficulty of the coexistence of the substance and the relation accident and the difficulty of the presence of one unique thing in the essences of two different objects are appeared and such strange things as the substantial redness is proved if this substantial movement proof is correct.

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Delay in Poetic Existential Thinking from the Point of View of Late Heidegger

Hossein Esfandiar; Ali Fallahrafie

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 79-100

Abstract

  In his philosophical studies, Heidegger opens a new approach to thinking, which is different from metaphysical thinking, and he refers to it as "existential thinking". According to ...  Read More In his philosophical studies, Heidegger opens a new approach to thinking, which is different from metaphysical thinking, and he refers to it as "existential thinking". According to him, "existential thinking" is a thinking arising from existence and about it, and the source of that existence is as an event. The event itself, as a historical description, is actually a gift of existence in the ages, and thought must be receptive to it. This gift shows itself in poetry; Because language is a condition for the emergence and revelation of the existence of beings. Poetry opens a magazine for the emergence of the truth of existence, and it is the poet and thinker who must protect this emergence. Therefore, "existential thinking" is the same as the essence of poetry, despite the special insight that Heidegger's existential thinking is a way to meditate on existence. It is open to us, there seem to be ambiguities and criticisms of his approach, including the suspicion of limiting the truth of existence to the horizon of time, ambiguity about the stability or modernity of existence, the possibility of any tasteful perception of existence without rational criteria, and finally, the diminution of the role of will and Human free will and submission to a type of predestination and determinism. In this article, we intend to first analyze Heidegger's late "existential thought" foundation and its coordinates with descriptive-analytical method and then criticize Heidegger's approach with a critical approach.

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Right to Punish in the Philosophy of Hobbes: Foundations and Effects

Shayan Akbari; Ahmad Hajidehabadi; Hassan Alipour; Ahmad fallahi

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 101-126

Abstract

  Understanding the fundamental concepts and institutions of criminal law rights is examined from a philosophical-historical perspective. The discussion of the foundations of state punishment ...  Read More Understanding the fundamental concepts and institutions of criminal law rights is examined from a philosophical-historical perspective. The discussion of the foundations of state punishment and the right to impose penalties on citizens is presented in a precise manner in Thomas Hobbes's philosophy. Throughout his, Leviathan, the right to punish. Stems from the social contract, and is considered a political right rather than a natural or pre-political one, entrusted to the state. Therefore, all citizens, disgusted by the natural state, relinquish the right to self-defence or the possibility of retaliation. This is considered a natural right for them after facing another violent onslaught, entrusting the protection of freedom and social order to the artificial entity known as the state, in order to end interpersonal conflicts and group disorder, leading to the emergence of sustainable peace. The right of the state to punish individuals has significant implications for criminal rights, including the secularization of punishment, state monopoly in punishing criminals, the establishment of legitimate defense institutions in the penal system, and the occurrence of crimes against the state. These issues are addressed with an analytical and interdisciplinary approach in this study. 

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Nietzsche's "Will to Power": A Psychological Interpretation and its Ethical Implications

MUHAMMADHOSSEIN امامی; ahmad Fazeli; Hossein Mesbahian

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 127-161

Abstract

  Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of "will to power" stands as a cornerstone of his philosophy, yet its interpretation remains a contentious issue. Among the various proposed interpretations, ...  Read More Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of "will to power" stands as a cornerstone of his philosophy, yet its interpretation remains a contentious issue. Among the various proposed interpretations, the ontological, metaphorical, and psychological perspectives each offer distinct understandings of this complex concept. While definitively establishing the "correct" interpretation is challenging due to the complexities of Nietzsche's writing and expression, this essay argues that the psychological interpretation aligns more effectively with the core tenets of his thought. The essay begins by providing a concise overview of the metaphysical, metaphorical, and psychological interpretations of "will to power." Acknowledging the inherent uncertainty in interpreting Nietzsche's ideas, it argues that the psychological interpretation, emphasizing the "will to power" as an intrinsic human drive for self-overcoming and growth, resonates more strongly with the broader themes of Nietzsche's philosophy, particularly perspectivism. Furthermore, the essay delves into the ethical implications of the psychological interpretation. It addresses concerns that this interpretation might endorse oppression and autocracy as necessary outcomes of the "will to power." Through careful analysis, the essay demonstrates how the psychological interpretation, when understood accurately, does not inherently support such harmful practices. In contrast, it highlights how this interpretation, emphasizing self-mastery and individual responsibility, can potentially contribute to moral development and a pursuit of excellence. Finally, the essay emphasizes the importance of understanding the foundational concepts of his philosophy, such as perspectivism, for accurately interpreting his ideas. By prioritizing evidence-based analysis and nuanced understanding, we can navigate the complexities of Nietzsche's thought and appreciate its enduring relevance in contemporary discussions about ethics, individual responsibility, and the pursuit of a meaningful life.

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The Interpretation of Forgiveness Meaning as the Being in the Place of Thereness and Discovering the Understanding of the Potentiality-for-Being in Ricoeur’s Narrative Structure: In the Time of Love Movie

sarvenaz torbati

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 163-188

Abstract

  The present article with the aim of interpretation and reviving the meaning of forgiveness is reading Ricoeur’s “Thereness” of forgiveness. Therefore, according to ...  Read More The present article with the aim of interpretation and reviving the meaning of forgiveness is reading Ricoeur’s “Thereness” of forgiveness. Therefore, according to hermeneutical understanding, Being is interpreted as forgiveness and giveness and by using hermeneutics method and an ontological perspective, the findings of the research illustrated that the conditions of possibility in understanding is Being-in–the-world and projecting in the future possibilities. As well, I found that understanding as a possible Being-ness, is the possibility of forgiveness. According to this theoretical view and by using Ricoeur’s narrative structure we are going to answer to these main questions that how can forgiveness be possible as Being-ness and how human can understand his possibilities in the arena of “I can” and give meaning to them? In order to illustrate the manifestation of forgiveness in the world of the text and  showing how the “Thereness” of Dasein can be possible, we project ourselves in the narrative possibilities of Time of Love movie through re-figuration to achieve a reading of forgiveness and new understanding of ourselves. According to Ricoeur’s view as each interpretation is an understanding of ourselves through the other, by placing ourselves in the possibilities of the story’s hero and emphasizing on “I can”, we’ll pass our present self and enter to the arena of love and forgiveness; we’ll place “there”.  

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Critical Review of a Critique of the Semantics of Non-Truth-Functional System; How are Causal, Conceptual and Logical Relations Formulated and Evaluated?

Morteza Hajihosseini; Mohammadhosein Esfandyari

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 189-222

Abstract

  The two propositions "If the sun rises, the sky is bright" and "If it rains, the ground is wet" can be formulated in classical logic to yield the following conclusion "If the sun rises, ...  Read More The two propositions "If the sun rises, the sky is bright" and "If it rains, the ground is wet" can be formulated in classical logic to yield the following conclusion "If the sun rises, then the ground is wet or if it rains, then the sky is bright."; intuitively, however, this argument does not seem to hold. In the book A New Outlook on the Elements of Logic, the author classified primitive connectives into two types, truth-functional and non-truth-functional, and showed the syntactic and semantic behaviour of non-truth-functional primitive connectives. In addition, the author introduced rules for the inference and reference of connectives to establish a non-truth-functional propositional logic system. By assigning the non-truth-functional system of propositional logic to the domain of causal, conceptual, and logical relations and formalizing the above argument in this system, the author shows its invalidity. Asadollah Fallahi, in his article Hajhosseini's Non-Truth-Functional Semantics, Falsafeh (available online on June 11, 2023), criticizes the semantics of this system with scattered criticisms. In this article, we will examine these criticisms in five groups: The behavior of the negation operator, the model and its components, the semantics of the non-truth-functional system and modal logic, the concept of validity, and the meta-theorems of completeness and decidability. We will also show that apart from one case of a trivial error, which is overstated in his critique, the other criticisms are due to the following: Failure to abandon presuppositions, deviation from some requirements of the critique, error in the understanding and interpretation of some formulas, errors in the interpretation and evaluation of some arguments, use of fallacious methods, neglect of some contents of the book, and resort to irrelevant grounds in the critique of the contents.  

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Examining Fayyazi’s Criticisms of the Famous Interpretation of the Theory of Mental Existence

Mohammad Hosseinzadeh

Volume 22, Issue 1 , October 2024, , Pages 223-243

Abstract

  Among the interpretations of mental existence, only a few of them have ruled on the existential contradiction between the acquired knowledge and mental existence; Gholamreza Fayyazi’s ...  Read More Among the interpretations of mental existence, only a few of them have ruled on the existential contradiction between the acquired knowledge and mental existence; Gholamreza Fayyazi’s view is the latest among them. One of the consequences of this recitation is the reconstruction of the representative apparition (al-shabaḥ al-muḥākī) theory and the substitution of representative correspondence (al-muṭābiqaẗ al-ḥikāyī) instead of substantive correspondence (al-muṭābiqaẗ al-māhawī) in the famous recitation. Fayyazi has argued on the ontological distinction between the acquired knowledge and mental existence in two ways:  the inner vision and the argument of correlation. This article has explained Fayyazi’s interpretation of the theory of mental existence in seven parts. The critical examination of this interpretation led to the conclusion that the theory of the unity of the knower and the known does not require that acquired knowledge be other than "mental form" from an ontological point of view; In addition, it was concluded that it is not correct to replace the representative correspondence instead of the substantive correspondence; because, it lacks the criteria necessary to explain the presentation and the correspondence between the mind and the object.  

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